Chinkhwawu cha Olduvai
Chigodobo cha Olduvai panji Oldupai ku Tanzania, ntchimoza mwa malo ghakuzirwa chomene pa charu. Chigwa cha Great Rift, icho chili pa mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 48 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Serengeti Plains, chili mu chigaŵa cha Ngorongoro Conservation Area mu chigaŵa cha Olbalbal mu chigaŵa cha Ngorongoro mu chigaŵa cha Arusha. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Britain na Kenya, a Mary na a Louis Leakey, ŵakafukura vinthu vinyake mu Olduvai Gorge. Malo agha ghali pa mbiri ya charu cha Tanzania.[2]
 Kuwona Olduvai Gorge na mapiri gha Naibor Soit. | |
  Site Location in Tanzania | |
| Location | Ngorongoro District, Arusha Region,  Tanzania |
|---|---|
| Region | Eastern Africa |
| Coordinates | 2°59′37″S 35°21′04″E / 2.993613°S 35.35115°E |
| Type | Archaelogical |
| Length | 48km |
| Site notes | |
| Excavation dates | 1913, 1935, 1941, 1953, 1955, 1958 & 1960 |
| Archaeologists | Wilhelm Kattwinkel, Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Percy Edward Kent & Jonathan Leakey |
| Condition | Excavated |
| Ownership | Tanzanian Government |
| Management | Antiquities Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism[1] |
| Public access | Yes |
| Official name | Oldupai Gorge |
| Type | Pre-historic |
Zina la dambo ili lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti oldupai, ilo likung'anamura "malo gha sidara" chifukwa sidara ya ku East Africa (Sansevieria ehrenbergii) yikukura chomene mu dambo ili. Mumphepete mwa Nyanja ya Ndutu na Nyanja ya Masek, mtunda wa makilomita 25 kufuma ku Nyanja ya Ndutu, mu dambo ili muli vyakumera vya mu Pleistocene. Mphepete mwa phiri la Lemagrut, pali chigwa china chomwe chimagwirizana ndi chigwa chachikulu pamtunda wa makilomita 8 kuchokera pakamwa. Mumphepete mwa dambo ili muli nyanja iyo yili na visomba vinandi. Para phiri la Olmoti na la Kerimasi likufuma vyoto, vikovwira kuti visomba ivi vileke kubwanganduka.[3]
Malo agha ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakamba kuchita vinthu mwakupambanapambana, chomenechomene pakupanga na kugwiliskira ntchito malibwe. Pambere viŵiya vindaŵeko, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu viŵaya na kupenja nyama. Kuwunjika vinthu na viwangwa vya nyama mu malo ghakupambanapambana mbukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakuŵa paubwezi. Vinthu vyose ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakumanya vinandi para ŵakwamba kukhala na ŵanthu.
Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako ni Homo habilis, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu Olduvai Gorge vyaka pafupifupi 1.9 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika kuti ni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens, ŵakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha.
Mbiri
Kusanga na Kupenjerezga
Mu 1911, Wilhelm Kattwinkel, dokotala wa ku Germany, wakaluta ku Olduvai Gorge, uko wakasanga viwangwa vinandi vya hachi ilo likaŵa na minwe yitatu. Munthu munyake wa ku Germany, zina lake Hans Reck, wakaluta ku Olduvai mu 1913. Ku malo agha, wakasanga visomba vya ŵanthu ivyo pamasinda vikalembeka na radiocarbon kuti vikaŵa vya m'ma 17,000 B.C.E. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵalute maulendo ghanyake ghanayi, kweni Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikaŵatondeska. Nkhondo yikati yamara, apo charu cha Tanganyika chikaŵa pasi pa Britain, Louis Leakey wakaluta ku Reck ku Berlin kuti wakawone viswaswa vya Olduvai. Louis Leakey wakagomezga kuti mu Olduvai Gorge mukaŵa visulo vya malibwe, ndipo wakaghanaghananga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa ghakale chomene nga umo vikaŵira ku Kariandusi ku Kenya. Mu 1931, Reck na Donald McInnes ŵakaluta na Louis Leakey pa ulendo wake. Mary Leakey wakaluta ku malo agha mu 1935, pamoza na Louis na Percy Edward Kent. Ŵa Leakey ŵakalutaso mu 1941, 1953, 1955, na 1957.
Louis na Mary Leakey ndiwo ŵakafukura na kusanga visomba vinandi vya ŵanthu mu Olduvai Gorge. Mu Julayi 1959, pa malo agha, Mary Leakey wakasanga chiwangwa cha mtundu wa Zinjanthropus panji Australopithecus boisei. Padera pa viswaswa vinandi, mbumba ya Leakey yikasangaso visulo vya malibwe ivyo Mary wakavilemba kuti ni vya Oldowan. Mu Meyi 1960, pa malo ghakuchemeka FLK North-North, mwana wa banja la Leakey, zina lake Jonathan, wakasanga chiwangwa icho chikaŵa mtundu wa Homo habilis.[3]:17–18,54,56–57,73–77,87
Kufukura vinthu vyakale
Hans Reck and Richard Hay
Nangauli Hans Reck ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kumanya umo mphanji iyi yiliri, kweni sono tikumanya umo mphanji iyi yiliri chifukwa cha ivyo Richard Hay wakachita. Hay wakakhala vyaka 12 wakusambira vya malo gha Olduvai, ndipo wakagwira ntchito na Mary Leakey. Buku la Hay lakuti The Geology of the Olduvai Gorge likafuma mu 1976.[4]
Reck wakamanya kuti mu dambo ili mukaŵa visulo vikuruvikuru vinkhondi, ndipo vikachemekanga kuti viŵaro vyakwamba kufuma pa I m'paka pa V. Hay na ŵasayansi ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu dambo ili kufuma mu nyengo ya Reck, ŵakagwiliskira ntchito ivyo Reck wakalemba, ndipo ŵakasazgirapo fundo zakupulikikwa makora. Mu nyengo ya Reck, malo ghakugona gha viŵaro vinayi ghakaŵa gha viŵaro vinayi na vya viŵaro vinayi vya Masek, apo malo gha viŵaro vinayi gha viŵaro vinayi ghakaŵa gha viŵaro vinayi.[4]
Kalemba ka Vipata
Chigaŵa cha stratigraphic icho chili mu chigodobu ichi chili na usani wa mamita 90, ndipo chili na tuff yakuchemeka Naabi ignimbrite. Malo agha ghakutowa comene cifukwa ca maji agho ghakukhira kufuma ku Olmoti na kunyake kumwera. Pa malo agha pali viswaswa vyakale chomene ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako vyaka 1.89 mya, apo vinthu vyakuzengera malibwe vikaŵako vyaka 1.7 mya. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito sayansi ya fission track na paleomagnetism kuti ŵamanye nyengo iyo viŵaro vikaŵirako. Vinthu vyakukumbukika vya ŵanthu na vyakuŵikapo malibwe vikusangika nyengo zose mu dambo ili. Ŵakapanga chipalamba chakuchemeka Olbalbal Depression kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ngorongoro.[3]:41–43
Bed I
Malibwe ghakukhalako agho ghali pa Naabi ignimbrite, ghakukwana mamita 2046 ndipo ghali na viswaswa vya Olmoti tuff. Malo ghanayi agho ŵanthu ŵakukhalako ghakusungika makora ghali mu malo gha bedi I, FLK na FLK North-North, kweniso DK na FLK North. Malo gha DK (kwamba kwa zina la Donald McInnes kusazgako k kwa korongo) ghali na ivyo Leakey wakuwona kuti ni libwe, kweniso vinthu vinandi na viwangwa ivyo vili na vyaka vya pakati pa 1.75 mya na 1.9 mya.[3]:45,50–58
Bed II
Chiziŵa cha Olduvai chili na dongo na malibwe gha mchenga ghakukwana mamita 21 mpaka 35. Ku malo agha kuli malo ghanandi ghakusungirako visomba, kusazgapo malo ghanyake agho kuli visomba vyakuchemeka chert nodule. Ŵakasanga nkhwantha za mawoko pa malo gha EF-HR (Evelyn Fuchs-Hans Reck) na TK (Thiongo Korongo). Pa malo agha pakaŵa Australopithecus boisei (mphumphu) na nyama yinyake yakuchemeka canine.[3]:58–63
Bedi lachitatu
Malo ghakubinkha ghatuŵa chomene gha III ghali na dongo, malibwe gha mchenga, na vibumira vya mamita 6 na 10. Pali viswaswa vichoko waka ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵako.
Bedi IV
Malo gha IV ghakupambana chomene na malo gha II agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo ili. Pa malo agha, maji agha ghali na usani wa mamita 5 na mamita 8. Pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya visulo vinayi vyakupambanapambana, ndipo pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya mawoko 500 (HK (Hopwood's Korongo), apo pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya mawoko vya phonolite na chiwangwa cha njovu (Heberer's Gully). Pa malo gha WK (Wayland's Korongo) pakaŵa chiwangwa na chiwangwa cha chiŵegha cha Homo erectus.
Mabedi gha masek
Makona gha Masek ghakupangika na vyoto viŵiri vyakufuma ku Kerimasi. Mu malo agha, ŵakasanga minjilira yinandi ya ma quartzite. Vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu ndimba za ndimba za Oldonyo Lengai ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ndimba za ndimba za ndimba za ndimba za Ndutu ziŵe zakukhora chomene. Makuni ghakale gha Lenonyogai nagho ghakupanga Naisiusiu Beds.
Mitundu ya visomba
Viwangwa vichoko waka vya Australopithecus boisei, ivyo vikusazgapo chiwangwa, chiwangwa cha chigha, na mino ghanandi, vikasangika mu viwangwa I na II, ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako pakati pa 1.1 na 2 mya. Viwangwa vya Homo habilis ivyo vikusangika kanandi chomene vikasangika mu chiŵaya I na chigaŵa cha pasi pa chiŵaya II, ndipo vikukolerana na Australopithecus boisei. Viwangwa vya Homo erectus vikasangika mu vigaŵa vya pachanya vya bedi lachiŵiri, ndipo vikaŵa nga vya Australopithecus boisei, kweni vya Homo habilis yayi.
[3]:74
Vyakovwira vya malibwe na awo ŵakuvipanga
Template:Human timelineMu 1951, Louis Leakey wakalongosora za makuni gha malibwe gha Oldowan. Ŵa Leakey ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo vya malibwe mu dambo ili, ndipo ŵakasanga malo 11 gha Oldowan mu dambo ili, 9 mu Bed I, na 2 mu Bed II. Kweniso ŵakamanya kuti chiŵiya cha Oldowan icho ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chikaŵa chakupambanapambana ndipo chikaŵa mu viŵaya viŵiri, vitatu, na vinayi. Vinthu ivi ni viŵiya vyakuchemeka spheroids na sub-spheroids.
Padera pa malo agho ŵakasoperangamo malibwe agha, mbumba ya Leakey yikasangaso malo ghanyake agho ŵakafumiskangamo malibwe agho ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakupanga visulo ivi. Vinthu ivi vikafuma ku Naibor Soit Inselberg, kumpoto kwa madambo. Phonolite iyi yikafuma ku phiri la Engelosen ilo lili pa mtunda wa makilomita 5 kumpoto. Gneiss wakafuma ku Kelogi inselborg 9 km kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi.:83 ¢86
Mtundu wakwamba uwo ŵanthu ŵa ku Leakey ŵakasanga, zina lake ni Zinjanthropus boisei panji Australopithecus boisei (uyo ŵakamuthya zina lakuti Paranthropus boisei ndipo uchali kudumbiskana), ukaŵa na msana wa sagittal na mino ghakuru. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalyanga vyakumera vyakukhora nga ni vipasi, mphonje, na njere, kweniso panji vyakumera vinandi.
Kweni ivyo ŵakasanga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 vikaŵa vyakupambana. Chiwangwa ichi chikaŵavya chiwangwa cha sagittal, ndipo wongo ukaŵa wakuzingilizgika, kulongora kuti ukaŵa wa australopithecine yayi. Chiŵiya chikuru ichi chikulongora kuti wongo wake ukaŵa ukuru chomene kuluska wa Australopithecus boisei. Vinthu ivi vikalongora kuti pakaŵa mtundu unyake wa vinyama. Maghanoghano ghake ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene ndipo mino ghake ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene.
Vinthu vyakale comene ivyo vikusangika ku Olduvai, vikaŵa vya majeremusi agho ghakaŵa pasi chomene. Pa malo agha, ndipo pamasinda pa malo agha, pakaŵa vyakumera vyakuchemeka Chellean na Acheulean. Pa malo agha pakaŵa vinthu vya Levallois, ndipo paumaliro pakaŵa vinthu vya Stillbay. Vyakovwira vya Oldowan vikuchemeka kuti "vyakovwira vya malibwe" chifukwa malibwe agho munthu wakughakora ghakaŵa nga ni malibwe agho ghafuma kale. Mary Leakey wakalemba viŵiya vya Oldowan kuyana na umo vikagwiliriranga ntchito; wakapangiska viŵiya vya Oldowan A, B, na C, ndipo wakaviyaniska na viŵiya vya Modes 1, 2, na 3. Mulimo wake ukuŵa wakovwira chomene pakusanda umo vinthu vikasinthira mu nyengo ya Pleistocene.
Tikumanya makora yayi kuti ni mtundu wuli wa ŵanthu awo ndiwo ŵakamba kupanga vinthu vya Oldowan. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako pambere ŵanthu ŵandaŵeko, ndipo vikayananga na mtundu wa Australopithecus garhi. Vyaka 1.7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya ku Oldowan na kupanga vinthu vya ku Acheulean.
Vyakovwira vya Oldowan vili mu vigaŵa vya I ̇IV pa Olduvai Gorge. Chiŵaya I, icho chili na vyaka vyapakati pa 1.85 mya na 1.7 mya, chili na viŵiya vya Oldowan na viswaswa vya Paranthropus boisei na Homo habilis, kweniso chiŵaya II, icho chili na vyaka vyapakati pa 1.7 mya na 1.2 mya. H. habilis wakasinthika na Homo erectus pafupifupi vyaka 1.6 ivyo vyajumpha, kweni P. boisei wakalutilira. Viŵiya vya Oldowan vikulutilira kufika pa bedi lacinayi pa msinkhu wa pakati pa 800,000 na 600,000 (BP). Kusintha kukuru kukacitika pakati pa viŵaya I na II pafupifupi 1.5 mya. Utali wawo ukakuranga, mphonje za visko viŵiri (m'malo mwa mphonje za chisko chimoza) zikaŵanga zinandi, ndipo vimanyikwiro vya kutikitira pa vinthu vinyake vikakuranga. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chomene vinthu ivi, ndipo ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chomene vinthu ivi.[5]
Hunters or scavengers?
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Nangauli pa Olduvai Gorge pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi pakati pa vyaka 1.9 na 1.7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaryanga nyama yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti nyama iyo ŵakaryanga yikaŵa yinandi chomene kuluska iyo ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaryanga. Pa vyakurya vyose ivyo vikurya chimpanzee, viŵisi 5 pera ndivyo vikurya nyama. Ndipo nyama zinandi zikusangika yayi mu vyakurya vya ŵanthu awo ŵakuŵawukira na kuwunjika nyama. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti vyakurya vinandi ivyo magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakarya vikafuma ku vyakumera. Ntheura, tingati ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa na vyakurya vyakuyana waka. (Wonani fundo ya pakati panji kuti bridging arguments.
Vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira vikufuma ku vinthu vyakugwilira ntchito na viswaswa ivyo vili kufuma ku malo nga ni FLK-Zinjanthropus mu Olduvai Gorge. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakasankhanga malibwe ghanyake agho ghakasunkhunyikanga para ŵagwirapo ntchito, ndipo ŵakayeghanga malibwe agha kufuma ku malo ghakutali chomene. Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale nga ni Fiona Marshall, ŵakakhozga kuti malibwe ghaŵikikane pamoza nga ni pulogiramu. Mu nkhani yake ya mutu wakuti "Life in Olduvai Gorge", iyo wakalemba, wakati ŵanthu ŵakwambilira "ŵakamanya umo ŵangaswera pa malibwe kuti ŵapangenge vizwazwa vyakuthwa". Wakayowoya kuti ŵakasoranga vizwazwa kuti ŵadumulirepo nyama, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vizwazwa kuti ŵadumulirepo minofu ya viŵeto.
Pa malo agha ŵakasangapo vizwazwa vya viyuni, somba, vyamoyo vya mu nyanja na mu nyanja, na vyamoyo vikuruvikuru. Vinthu ivi vikapangika na ŵanthu awo ŵakaphyoranga viwangwa kuti ŵasange muvi, panji ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu vinyake kuti ŵajure nyama. Pakuti pali vimanyikwiro vyakupambanapambana, ŵasayansi ŵanyake, kusazgapo Lewis Binford, ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaryanga nyama panji msana uwo ukakhalapo para ŵakoma nyama. Ŵanyake nga ni Henry Bunn ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakakomeranga vinyama ivi, ndipo pamasinda vinyama vinyake vikalyanga viwangwa. Nangauli nkhani iyi yichali kudumbiskana na ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano, kweni Pat Shipman, uyo wakusanda vinthu vyakale, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupenja viswaswa. Shipman wakasangaso kuti viwangwa vinandi vya nyama izi vikusangika na viwangwa vya ŵanalume na vya ŵanalume. Ichi chikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalondezganga nyama izi. Fumbo lakuti, kasi kupenja nyama ku Olduvai Gorge likaŵa lakuzirwa comene ni ilo licalipo.[6]
Viwangwa vya ŵanthu ivyo vikusangika ku Olduvai Gorge
Chipilala cha Olduvai Gorge
Mu Julayi 2019, chikumbusko cha Olduvai Gorge chikimikika pa chipata cha Olduvai Gorge kufuma pa msewu uwo ukubatana na Ngorongoro Conservation Area na Serengeti National Park (msewu uwo ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa safari). Mung'anga Joshua Mwankunda wakambiska fundo ya kuzenga cikumbusko ca malo ghakuzirwa agha, ndipo pa nyengo yeneyiyo wakacitanga mulimo wa kucenjezga na kukopa ŵalendo ku Olduvai Gorge na ku nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale; ŵasayansi ŵa paleoanthropologists Nicholas Toth, Kathy Schick, na Jackson Njau ŵakanozga na kupeleka viswaswa vya viswaswa vya ŵanthu pa pempho la boma la Tanzania. Chipilala ichi chili na viwangwa viŵiri vikuruvikuru ivyo vili pa chikhwangwani chikuru. Viwangwa ivi ni vya Paranthropus boisei na Homo habilis, vyamoyo viŵiri ivyo vikaŵako panyengo yimoza ivyo vikasangika ku Olduvai Gorge. Viwoneskero vikuruvikuru ivyo Kijo wali kupanga vili na msinkhu wa mamita 6 na uzito wa mapaundi 5,000. Ntchito iyi yikagwiranga lumoza na wupu wa Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA).[7]
Olduvai Gorge Museum, iyo yili pa mtunda wa makilomita 5 kufuma pa cikumbusko ici, yili mumphepete mwa canyon pa malo agho canyon yikuru na canyon yinyake yikukumana. Malo agha ndigho ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale chomene vya ku Africa.
Malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyapasi gha IUGS
Pakuyowoya za malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhalako kale agho ghakulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakakhalira na ivyo ŵakachitanga, wupu wa International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) ukalembapo malo agha mu buku lake la "100 geological heritage sites" pa charu chose. Wupu uwu ukuti malo agho ghali ku chigaŵa cha chiharo cha charu (IUGS Geological Heritage Site) ni "malo agho ghali na vigaŵa vya charu (geological elements) na/panji ndondomeko za sayansi za pa caru cose, agho ghakugwiliskirika nchito nga ni malo ghakuyelezgera, ndiposo/panji agho ghali kovwirapo comene pakusambizga sayansi ya vya charu".[8]
Vithuzi
-
Cinthu cakale comene ico ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mu British Museum[9] -
Malo agho ŵakasanga P. boisei wakwamba ku Tanzania -
Chiŵiya chakuponyera malibwe cha Oldowan -
Vyaka pafupifupi 1.8 miliyoni
Wonaniso
Ukaboni
- ↑ "Antiquities Division". Retrieved 21 Jul 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Antiquities Sites" (PDF). Retrieved 21 Jul 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Leakey, Mary (1979). Olduvai Gorge. London: Book Club Associates. pp. 11–17, 40.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hay, Richard L. (Richard LeRoy), 1926- (1976). Geology of the Olduvai Gorge : a study of sedimentation in a semiarid basin. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02963-1. OCLC 2391581.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kimura, Yuki. C (2002). "Examining time trends in the Oldowan technology at Beds I and II, Olduvai Gorge". Journal of Human Evolution. 43 (3): 291–321. doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0576. PMID 12234546.
- ↑ Ungar, Peter (2007). Peter Ungar (ed.). Evolution of the Human Diet. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183467.
- ↑ {"Zinj Tower launch: Jubilant PM sees all humans as Tanzanians". www.ippmedia.com (in English). Retrieved 2020-01-23.
- ↑ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
- ↑ "A History of the World in 100 Objects". The British Museum. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
Vyakulemba vinyake
- Cole, Sonia (1975). Leakey's Luck. Harcourt Brace Jovanvich, New York.
- Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn Archaeology Essentials (2007). Archaeology Essentials. 2nd Edition. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London.
- Deocampo, Daniel M (2004). "Authigenic clays in East Africa: Regional trends and paleolimnology at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Journal of Paleolimnology. 31 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2004JPall..31....1D. doi:10.1023/b:jopl.0000013353.86120.9b. S2CID 128956824.
- Deocampo, Daniel M.; Blumenschine, R.J.; Ashley, G.M. (2002). "Freshwater wetland diagenesis and traces of early hominids in the lowermost Bed II (~1.8 myr) playa lake-margin at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Quaternary Research. 57: 271–281. doi:10.1006/qres.2001.2317. S2CID 129174931.
- Hay, Richard L. (1976). "Geology of the Olduvai Gorge." University of California Press, 203 pp.
- Gengo, Michael F. (2009). Evidence of Human Evolution, Interpreting. Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture.SAGE Publications. 5 Dec. 2011.
- Young, Lisa (2 October 2011). Hominin Migrations Out of Africa. Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology. University of Michigan.
- Tactikos, Joanne Christine (2006). A landscape perspective on the Oldowan from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. ISBN 0-542-15698-9.
- Leakey, L.S.B. (1974). By the evidence: Memoirs 1932-1951. Harcourt Brace Jovanavich, New York, ISBN 0-15-149454-1.
- Leakey, M.D. (1971). Olduvai Gorge: Excavations in beds I & II 1960–1963. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- Leakey, M.D. (1984). Disclosing the past. Doubleday & Co., New York, ISBN 0-385-18961-3.
- Marshall, Fiona. (1999). Life in OLDUVAI GORGE. Calliope Sept. 1999: 16. General OneFile. Web. 4 Dec. 2011.
- Young, Lisa (25 September 2011). The First Stone Tool Makers. Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology. University of Michigan.
Vigaŵa vya kuwalo
