Wikipedia

Mbili ya Zambia

Mbiri ya Zambia yili na vigaŵa vinandi, kwamba pa nyengo iyo yikaŵa pasi pa Britain m'paka apo yikafwatukira ku Britain pa Okutobala 24, 1964. Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka chigaŵa cha Britain mu malo agho sono ni Zambia mu 1888, ndipo yikapharazgika kuti ni boma la Britain mu 1924. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, vyaru vya Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, na Nyasaland vikasazgikana na kuzgoka British Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

Kuzakafika mu 1960, Harold Macmillan, nduna yikuru ya Britain, yikati muwuso wa ŵasilikari ŵa caru ca Africa uli pafupi kumara. Paumaliro, mu Disembala 1963, wupu uwu ukamara, ndipo pa Okutobala 24, 1964, Republic of Zambia yikapangika kufuma ku Northern Rhodesia.[1]

Mbili

 
Mutu wa munthu wa ku Broken Hill ukasangika ku Kabwe.

Prehistoric era

Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura mu Dambo la Zambezi na ku Kalambo Falls vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo ghakupambanapambana. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa malo ghakukhalapo pafupi na maji gha Kalambo, ŵali kusanga kuti ni vyaka vyakujumpha 36,000.

Viwangwa vya munthu wa ku Broken Hill, ivyo vikusangika pakati pa vyaka 300,000 na 125,000 B.C.E., vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.[2]

Khoisan na Batwa

 
Vinthu vyakale (kweni vili kulembeka pa malibwe) mu mphanji ya Nsalu, Kasanka National Park ku North-Central Zambia.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Khoisan na Batwa ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu charu cha Zambia m'paka cha m'ma 300 C.E. apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakafuma ku East Africa ndipo ŵakamba kukhala kumwera vyaka pafupifupi 150,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Kafwe Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Kafue flat apo ŵa mtundu wa Lukanga Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Lukanga Swamp. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka mu miyala vyakale ku Zambia, nga ni vyakujambura vya mu miyala vya ku Mwela, mphanji za Mumbwa, na mphanji za Nachikufu, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵalwani. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan, chomenechomene ŵa mtundu wa Twa, ŵakakhalanga pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto mu charu cha Central na Southern Africa.[3][4]

The Bantu (Abantu)

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu panji Abantu (ŵanthu awo ŵakung'anamura ŵanthu) ni ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumwera, na ku Central Africa. Cifukwa cakuti Zambia yili pa mphambano ya Central Africa, Southern Africa, na African Great Lakes, ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu Zambia mazuŵa ghano ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi.

Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi vikacitika nyengo yimoza. Ntheura, nga ni umo viliri na vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, mbiri ya Zambia yingalembeka mwakudumura yayi. Mbiri yakwambilira ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia yikusangika mu mabuku agho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pamulomo, ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale, na mu mabuku agho ŵanthu awo ŵakalembako yayi ndiwo ŵakalemba.[5]

Bantu origins

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakakhalanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 4,000 na 3,000, ŵakamba kuthandazgika mu vyaru vinandi. Cinthu ici cikacemeka Bantu Expansion, ico nchimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakasamira mu caru. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kunjizga visulo mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakendanga mu nthowa ziŵiri: yimoza yikaŵa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwizira mu Congo Basin ndipo yinyake yikaŵa ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwizira mu Nyanja zikuru za ku Africa.[6]

First Bantu settlement

 
Mwana wa Ila Headman ku Southern Zambia, ng'ombe zikaŵa zakuzirwa comene mu mbumba yawo.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakiza ku Zambia ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi na kwiza ku Africa.

Malo ghakuru gha Ba-Ila. Ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakutemwa chomene masamu chifukwa cha umo ŵakuchitira.

Ŵakafika mu nyengo ya 1 C.E. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Tonga (ŵakucemekaso kuti Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" kung'anamura "ŵanalume") na ŵa Ba-Ila na magulu ghanyake agho ghakakhalanga kufupi na kumwera kwa Zambia kufupi na Zimbabwe. Kuyana na mabuku gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba-Tonga, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi kufupi na "nyanja yikuru".

Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ba-Tumbuka nawo ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia na Malawi.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu mizi yikuruyikuru. Ŵakaŵavya mulongozgi panji mulongozgi ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na kovwirana pakunozga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵakasamukanga kanandi waka chifukwa chakuti charu chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kulima vyakumera. Ŵakaŵaso na viŵeto vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene mu umoyo wawo.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ku Zambia ŵakaŵa ŵakujitemwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakumana nawo ŵakakondwa comene na umo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalira. Ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika kumwera kwa Zambia ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira paŵekha.[7]

 
Ingombe Ilede yikaŵa malo ghakuguliskirako malonda kumwera kwa Zambia.

"Usange munthu [wa ku Tonga] wakukhumba vilwero vya nkhondo, kuvina, panji vya mu nyumba, wakuluta ku mapiri na kukumba mpaka wasange visulo. Wakusongonora visulo ivi na kupanga nkhwantha, vyakulimira, na vinthu vinyake vyakovwira. Wakotcha makuni na kupanga makala gha makuni. Viŵiya ivyo wakugwiliskira ntchito ni vikumba vya nyama, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni dongo, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni visulo. Wakuwumba, kuwotcha, kupanga, na kucita milimo yose iyo wakucita".[8]

 
Ŵalovi ŵa ku Batonga ku Southern Zambia. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanakazi ŵakucita milimo yakuzirwa comene.
 
Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu charu cha Great Zimbabwe vikaŵa vyakubisika.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku malo ghakuchemeka Ingombe Ilede (kung'anamura ng'ombe yakugona mu Chi-Tonga chifukwa khuni la baobab likuwoneka nga ni ng'ombe) ku Southern Zambia. Ingombe Ilede ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene ghakwendeskera malonda gha mafumu gha ku Great Zimbabwe.

Vinthu ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Ingombe Ilede vikaŵa: salu, mphete, golide, na mabangili. Vinthu vinyake vikafuma ku vigaŵa ivyo sono ni kumwera kwa Democratic Republic of Congo na Kilwa Kisiwani, apo vinyake vikafuma ku vigaŵa vyakutali nga ni India, China, na vyaru vya Ŵaarabu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Ŵapwitikizi nawo ŵakiza ku Africa.

Kuchepa kwa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe, chifukwa cha mpikisano wa malonda kuchokera ku maufumu ena a Kalanga/Shona monga Khami ndi Mutapa, kunatanthauzira kutha kwa Ingombe Ilede.[9][10]

Second Bantu settlement

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakenda nthowa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of the Congo ndipo ndiwo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia.

 
Ŵanakazi awo ŵakakhalanga pa mpando (Kibango), ŵakawonekanga na mafumu gha Luba. Mu cikaya ca Luba, mathupi gha ŵanakazi ghakawonekanga nga ni ciŵiya ca nkhongono yauzimu.

Nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Bemba panji AbaBemba ŵali na ubwezi wakukhora na Ufumu wa Kongo kwizira mwa Mwene Kongo VIII Mvemba uyo wakaŵa fumu ya BaKongo, kweni ukaboni uwu ulipo yayi.

Luba-Lunda States

 
Lukasa memory board, yikagwiliskirika nchito na mamembala gha Mbudye (bungwe la banthu awo ŵakumanya kusunga mbiri ya Baluba)

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Lamba, Bisa, Senga, Kaonde, Swaka, Nkoya na Soli, ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu Ufumu wa Luba ku Upemba mu Democratic Republic of Congo. Malo agho Ufumu wa Luba ukakhalanga ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakulima na ŵantchito ŵa visulo kwamba m'ma 300 C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasambira kugwiliskira nchito mikwawu, vyakuponyera visulo, kupanga maboti, kujura migelo mu mathipa, na kupanga madamu gha mamita 2.5.

Ntheura ŵakamba kuguliska somba, mkuŵa, na visulo, kweniso mchere kuti ŵaguliske vinthu ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa nga ni Swahili Coast na ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ufumu wa Luba ukafuma mu ŵanthu aŵa.[11][12]

Ufumu wa Luba ukaŵa ufumu ukuru uwo ukaŵa na boma likuru kweniso mafumu ghachoko waka. Chikaŵa na mawupu ghakurughakuru gha malonda agho ghakakolerananga nkhorongo za mu Congo Basin na mapiri gha ku Copperbelt Province, agho sono ghali na vinthu vinandi. Mu ufumu uwu, ŵanthu ŵakazirwiskanga comene maluso, ndipo ŵantchito nawo ŵakazirwiskikanga comene.[11]

 
Chithuzi cha mulongozgi wa Lunda, Mwata Kazembe, wakupokelera Ŵapwitikizi mu luŵaza lwa ufumu mu ma 1800.

Mabuku gha Ufumu gha ku Luba nagho ghakasangika makora. Nkhani yinyake yakumanyikwa ya umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ŵakababikira yikulongosora mphambano pakati pa mitundu yiŵiri ya mafumu gha ku Luba.

Nkongolo Mwamba, fumu yiswesi, na Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, karonga wa mtundu wakufipa. Nkongolo Mwamba ni mulongozgi wa nkhaza na wakuloŵera, Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, fumu yakuzika. Nkongolo the red ni munthu wambura nkharo, munthu uyo wakurya pa wumba, wakuloŵera, ndipo wakumanya yayi kujikora, apo Mbidi Kiluwe ni munthu wakujivikilira, wakutemwa nkharo yiwemi; wakurya yayi pa wumba, wakulamulira kayowoyero kake na kacitiro kake, ndipo wakujipatura ku makhaliro ghaheni na viheni vya ŵanthu bweka. Nkongolo Mwamba wakwimira nkhaza, apo Mbidi Kiluwe wakulutilira kuŵa munthu wacitemwa ndiposo walusungu".[13]

 
Cithuzithuzi ca nyumba za ku Lunda cakulembeka na munthu wa ku Portugal. Utali wa vipata vikulongora ukuru wa nyumba.

Mu chigaŵa chenechicho cha kumwera kwa Congo ŵanthu ŵa Lunda ŵakazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Luba ndipo ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa Luba. Kuyana na nthano za Lunda, Chibinda Ilunga, mwana wa Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ndiyo wakambiska ndondomeko ya boma ku Lunda. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ŵakaŵa mu ufumu wa Luba. Ndipouli, mafumu gha Lunda ghakaŵa ghakupambana na mafumu ghanyake ndipo ghakalutilira kuthereska ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi.

 
Ŵasungwana ŵa mtundu wa Bemba. Ŵanakazi ŵa ku AbaBemba ŵakapanganga na kutozga majuda kuti ŵaŵe ŵakutowa kweniso kuti ŵawonenge kuti mbanthu ŵa mu cikaya cawo.

Lunda, nga ni boma la Luba, nalo likaguliskanga vinthu ku nyanja za Atlantic na Indian Ocean. Na muwuso wa Mwaant Yaav Naweej wakambiska nthowa zakwendera ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo wakambiska kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga na vyakurya vya mu nkhorongo.[14][14]

Vyaru vya Luba-Lunda vikamara chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku Indian Ocean kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe, awo ŵakaŵa ŵabali ŵa Luvale ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Lunda, ŵakasuzgikanga na ŵazga awo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga, kweni ŵakati ŵafumako ku Lunda, ŵakazgoka ŵamalonda ŵa ŵazga. Paumaliro Ŵachokwe ŵakathereskeka na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kweniso Ŵapwitikizi.

Ivi vikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Luba-Lunda uparanyike, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakambukira ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Zambia kufuma ku Democratic Republic of Congo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵali kufuma ku mbumba ya Luba-Lunda na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Central Africa.[15]

The Maravi Confederacy[16]

 
Mtundu uwu wa visalu vya Nyau ivyo vikaŵa na nthenga zikuruzikuru, ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pakusambizga mizimu. Zina lake ni Nchawa.

Mu ma 1200, pambere boma la Luba-Lunda lindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Congo kuya ku nyanja ya Mweru. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Upemba, Democratic Republic of Congo. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, magulu agha ghakacemekanga Maravi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵa Chewa.[17]

 
Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chewa ŵali kufuma ku Kalonga (ŵawusi) ŵa Ufumu wa Maravi.

Mu 1480 Ufumu wa Maravi ukakhazikiskika na Kalonga (mkulu wa Maravi) kufuma ku phiri clans umoza mwa mafuko ghakuru na ghanyake agho ni Banda, Mwale na Nkhoma. Ufumu wa Maravi ukaŵa kufuma ku nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujumpha mu charu icho sono ni Mozambique m'paka ku Zambia na vigaŵa vinandi vya Malawi. Gulu la ndyali la ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi likaŵa nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakafuma ku malo agha.

Kweniso ŵakacitanga na kutumizga visulo. Mu 1590 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵatore malonda gha ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ku Lundu ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo ŵakachita ndipo ŵakafumiska ŵasilikari ŵa WaZimba. Ŵa WaZimba ŵakathereska matawuni gha Tete, Sena, na matawuni ghanyake gha ku Portugal.

Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Ŵamaravi ndiwo ŵakiza na mitheto iyo yikazgoka gulu lakubisika la Nyau kufuma ku Upemba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ŵakutemwa kuvina na visalu ivyo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito.

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi ŵakamba kusuzgika chifukwa cha kulimbana kwa mtundu uwu, kuwukira kwa Ŵangoni, na kuwukira kwa ŵazga kufuma ku Yao.[17][17][18][17]

Ufumu wa Mutapa na Mfecane

 
Ŵalongozgi ŵatatu ŵa Ŵangoni. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakiza ku Eastern Zambia kufuma ku KwaZulu ku South Africa. Paumaliro ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.

Apo caru ca Great Zimbabwe cikaŵa mu suzgo. Yumoza wa ŵakaronga ŵake, Nyatsimba Mutota, wakafumako ku ufumu uwu na kupanga ufumu uphya wakucemeka Mutapa. Mwene Mutapa, kung'anamura "Wakupankhura Vyaru", ndiyo wakapika zina ili pamoza na mafumu ghanyake agho ghakiza pamanyuma pake.

Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Zambezi na Limpopo, mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Zimbabwe, na Mozambique. Mu nyengo iyi, Mutapa wakaŵa kuti wapoka chigaŵa cha Dande ku Tonga na Tavara. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Ŵakafumiskanga golide na njovu mu vyaru vya ku Asia.[19]

Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku Maravi, Mutapa nayo wakasuzgika na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal. Ubwezi wawo ukafika pachanya apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵajinthe vinthu vya mu ufumu wawo. Ivi vikakwiyiska chomene Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu. Ivi vikawovwira kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵambe kuwukira ufumu wa Eguputo na kuwukira migodi ya golide na misewu yakufumira ku vigaŵa vya ku Eguputo. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathera chifukwa cha matenda agho ghakawira mu mlonga wa Zambezi.

Mu ma 1600, mphindano za mukati na nkhondo za mukati zikapangiska kuti Mutapa waleke kwenda makora. Paumaliro, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathereska ufumu uwu, ndipo pamasinda ŵakawukira maufumu ghanyake gha Ŵashona.[20][19][21]

 
Mu nyumba ya Litunga, muwusi wa Lozi. Chifukwa cha kututuka kwa maji mu mlonga wa Zambezi, Litungga wali na nyumba ziŵiri zacifumu. Ŵakuchita viphikiro vya ku Kuomboka pakukumbukira kuti Litunga wakaluta ku malo ghapacanya

Julian Cobbing wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kweniso awo ŵakayezganga kuti ŵajikorenge vinthu mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa, ndiwo ŵakambiska nkhondo. Ici tingaciwona na nkhondo ya WaZimba iyo yikacitika mu Maravi, iyo yikati yatonda Ŵapwitikizi, yikalutilira kuŵa ya nkhondo.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Rozvi, uwo ukaŵa wa Mutapa, uŵeko. Mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Rozvi, Changamire Dombo, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono comene mu South-Central Africa. Mu muwuso wake, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozvi ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi na kuŵachimbizga ku malo agho ŵakaguliskiranga vinthu mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Zambezi.[22]

 
Ŵakuwona kuti mu malo ghanyake ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia, muli makishi agho ghakwimira mizimu ya ŵakufwa awo ŵakuwelera kuti ŵawovwire ŵamoyo

Kweni ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani iyi nchakuti Ŵazulu ŵakamba kulamulira na Shaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape ŵakamba kuŵasuzga chomene ndipo Ŵazulu ŵakamba kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵazulu ŵakasazgikiranga mwa kupokelera ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵa mafuko agho ŵakathereska. Usange ŵanalume ŵa mafuko agha ŵakapona, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa za ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵazulu kuti ŵawukire mafuko ghanyake.

Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo, nkhondo na kuwukira mu vyaru vya kumwera, pakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanguni awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Zwagendaba ŵakambuka mlonga wa Zambezi kulazga kumpoto. Ŵangoni ndiwo ŵakakoma ufumu wa Maravi uwo ukaŵa kuti wanangika kale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Nguni ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, na Tanzania, ndipo ŵakakolerana na mitundu yinyake iyo yikaŵa pafupi.[23][23]

Ku Western Zambia, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakukhala ku Sotho-Tswana ŵakuchemeka Kololo, ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha awo ŵakafuma ku charu cha Luba na Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Barotse pa malo agho mukaŵa maji gha Zambezi ŵakati ŵafika kufuma ku Katanga. Mu nyengo ya Kololo, chiyowoyero cha Kololo chikapelekeka ku Luyana m'paka apo Luyana wakagalukira na kuwuskapo Kololo. Pa nyengo iyi chiyowoyero cha Luyana chikaluwa ndipo chiyowoyero chiphya cha hybrid chikawoneka.

Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵambunda ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku Barotseland, Mongu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aluyi na mulongozgi wawo, Litunga Mulambwa, ŵakazirwiskanga comene Mbunda cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kurwa nkhondo.

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakakhala mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakukhala sono.[24][25][26]

Colonial period

 
Cecil Rhodes.
Nkhani ikulu: Northern Rhodesia

Mu 1888, Cecil Rhodes, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa vyamalonda na ndyali ku Central Africa, wakapokera wanangwa wa kusanga migodi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku malo agha. Mu caka cenecici, vyaru vya Northern na Southern Rhodesia, ivyo sono ni Zambia na Zimbabwe, vikapharazgika kuti ni vyaru vya Britain. Pakwamba, malo agha ghakaŵa gha British South Africa Company (BSAC) ya ku Rhodes, iyo yikakhumbanga yayi kuwona chigaŵa ichi.

Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico cikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na ndalama zinandi cikaŵa mkuŵa. Munthu munyake wa ku America, zina lake Frederick Russell Burnham, ndiyo wakabowozga vinthu ivi. Mu 1895, wakadangilira na kulaŵilira mulimo ukuru wa Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. uwo ukalongora kuti mu Central Africa mukaŵa mkuŵa. Pa mlonga wa Kafue, uwo ukaŵa ku Northern Rhodesia, Burnham wakawona kuti malo agha ghakupambana na malo ghanyake gha mkuwa agho wakagwirapo nchito ku United States.

Mu 1923, boma la Britain likakana kuwezgerapo wanangwa wa kampani iyi. Pa cifukwa ici, caru ca Southern Rhodesia cikapokelereka na kuŵa na mazaza mu 1923. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, boma la Northern Rhodesia likapelekeka ku ofesi ya British Colonial Office mu 1924 nga ni malo ghakulongozga, ndipo Livingstone wakaŵa msumba ukuru. Mu 1935, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ŵakaluta nawo ku Lusaka. Wupu wakulongozga ukaŵapo, ndipo ŵanthu ŵankhondi ŵakasankhika na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaŵa ŵachoko (ŵanthu 4,000 pera).[27][28]

 
Mbendela ya Northern Rhodesia.

Mu 1928, ŵanthu ŵakasanga mkuŵa unandi chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Ici cikapangiska kuti caru ca Northern Rhodesia cileke kuŵa malo agho ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵakakhalanga. Kuzakafika mu 1938, charu ichi chikapanganga mkuwa wakukwana 13% pa charu chose. Gulu ili likapangika na makampani ghaŵiri: Anglo American Corporation (AAC) na South African Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST), agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa gulu ili m'paka apo likapokera wanangwa.

Cifukwa cakuti ŵaganyu ŵakakhalanga makora yayi kweniso misonkho yikakwera, mu 1935, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kugwentha migodi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakalekeska ntchito iyi ndipo ŵanthu 6 ŵakakomeka.

Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, mu 1940, ŵantchito ŵa mu migodi ŵakaleka kugwira ntchito. Pakumanya kuti vinthu ivyo ŵakapanga vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene pa nkhondo, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵapike malipiro ghanandi. Ŵaganyu ŵa ku Africa ŵakalondezgapo.

 
Sitampu iyo yili na cithuzithuzi ca Fumukazi Elizabeth II, 1955

Nanga ni apo nkhondo yikaŵa kuti yindambe, pakaŵa kudumbiskana vya kunjizga ma Rhodesia ghaŵiri agha, kweni boma la Britain likalekeska. Paumaliro, mu 1953, vyaru vyose viŵiri ivi vikasazgikana na Nyasaland (sono ni Malawi) na kupanga Central African Federation. [29]Ku Northern Rhodesia ndiko kukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakaŵapo mu vyaka vyaumaliro vya wupu uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachiteko vinthu mu boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakawopanga kuti ŵalutilirenge kulamulira.[30]

Pa vigaŵa viŵiri, mu Okutobala na Disembala 1962, pakaŵa mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu wupu wakulamulira. Pa 31 Disembala, 1963, chiphapha ichi chikamara, ndipo Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka Republic of Zambia pa 24 Okutobala, 1964.[28][31][28]

Kujiyimila

File:Zambia Ind000.jpg
A book published by the government upon independence.

Apo Zambia wakapokera wanangwa wake, wakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi. Pa caru cose, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakasambizgika makora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kwendeska boma. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vili kufupi na Zambia vikaŵa vyakulongozgeka na ŵazungu.

Chipani cha United National Independence Party (UNIP) chikapambana pa mavoti agho ghakachitika pambere charu chindambe kujiyimira, ndipo chikapokera vithuzithuzi 55 pa vithuzithuzi 75. Chipani cha African National Congress cha ku Zambia chikapokera vithuzithuzi 10, ndipo chipani cha National Progressive Party chikapokera vithuzithuzi vyose 10 ivyo vikaŵa vya ŵazungu. Kenneth Kaunda wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru, ndipo pamasinda mu chaka chenechicho wakaŵa pulezidenti.

Kaunda wakapulikira fundo ya wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku Africa, yakuyana na ya Julius Nyerere wa ku Tanzania. Ndondomeko za vya cuma zikaghanaghaniranga comene vya kunozga vyaru, ndipo boma likakhazikiskanga cipani cimoza.[32][33]

Kuyana na muwuso wa chipani cimoza

Mu 1968, Kaunda wakasankhikaso kuŵa pulezidenti. Mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, Zambia yikamba kulamulira na cipani cimoza. Mu 1972, magulu ghose gha ndyali, kupaturako UNIP, ghakazomerezgeka yayi. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe boma la chipani chimoza ilo likuŵa na wanangwa wakuwungana. Chikaŵa na pulezidenti wankhongono na wupu wa National Assembly. Komiti Yikuru ya UNIP ndiyo yikapanganga fundo za boma. Boma likalondezganga fundo za komiti yikuru. Pa maungano gha boma, ŵanthu ŵekha awo ŵakasankhika na UNIP ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga. Nangauli pakaŵavya mphindano pakati pa vipani, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana chomene kuti ŵatore malo mu UNIP. Pa mavoti gha pulezidenti, munthu yekha uyo wakazomerezgekanga kwimilira wakaŵa uyo wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa UNIP pa ungano ukuru wa chipani. Ntheura Kaunda wakasankhikaso mu 1973, 1978, 1983, na 1988 kwambura kususkika.[34]

 
S.M. Chisembele, Nduna ya Western Province.

Ndipouli, ici cikang'anamuranga kuti pakaŵavya kususkana na dango la chipani cimoza mu caru panji mukati mwa UNIP. Sylvester Mwamba Chisembele uyo wakaŵa nduna ya Western Province (kale yikaŵa Barotse Province) pamoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa UNIP kufuma ku vigaŵa 7 pa vigaŵa 8 ŵakakhazikiska komiti ya ŵanthu 14. Cakulinga ca Komiti ya 14 iyo yikaŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri kufuma mu vigaŵa vyose 7 cikaŵa cakuti paŵe wupu wa ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri kufuma mu chigaŵa chilichose. Usange ivi vicitikenge, mphanyi nkhongono zose izo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakaŵa nazo zikamara. Komiti ya 14 yikaluta ku ungano ku State House uko Pulezidenti Kaunda wakazomera kughanaghanira fundo zawo. Ndipouli, pamasinda wakazomerezga yayi kuti Komiti ya 14 yiŵepo, ndipo Sylvester Chisembele wakathereskeka. Pamanyuma Chisembele wakaweleraso ku nduna ya vyaru nga nduna yakuwona vya chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka viŵiri mu 1977 wakasamukira ku chigaŵa cha Copperbelt uko vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi, chomenechomene chifukwa cha mavoti agho ghakaŵa pafupi kuchitika. Simon M. Kapwepwe na Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula, awo pambere boma la chipani chimoza lindambe kulamulira, ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa UPP na ANC. Ndipouli, chiyezgo chawo cha kupempha Pulezidenti Kaunda kuti waŵe pulezidenti pa tikiti ya UNIP chikatondeka cifukwa wose ŵakakanizgika na kulekeskeka cifukwa ca ivyo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakacita. Simon Kapwepwe na Harry Nkumbula ŵakasuska ivyo vikachitika mu 1978 apo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakasankhika ku Khoti Likuru, kweni ivyo ŵakachita vikaŵa vyambura phindu.[35]

Chuma na suzgo la mkuŵa

Pamanyuma pakuti Zambia wapokera wanangwa wake, wakamba kulondezga fundo za ku mphepete. Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikendanga makora yayi. Makampani ghanyake ghakaŵa gha boma ndipo ghakazgoka mabungwe ghakurughakuru gha boma. Boma likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵafiske ivyo likukhumba kwizira mu vyakurya ivyo likaguliskanga. Pakwamba, vyose vikenda makora ndipo chuma chikakura. Kweni pakati pa ma 1970, vinthu vikamba kunangika chomene. Mu nyengo ya pakati pa 1975 na 1990, chuma cha Zambia chikakhira na 30%.

Kuti ŵamarane na suzgo ili, Zambia yikatora ngongoli zinandi kufuma ku International Monetary Fund na World Bank mu cigomezgo cakuti mtengo wa mkuwa ukwelerengeso mwaluŵiro, m'malo mwa kusintha vinthu.[36]

Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake

Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵakakolerana na awo ŵakususka muwuso wa ŵazungu. Mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo, wupu uwu ukawovwira magulu nga ni National Unions for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Angola na nkhondo ya pawenenawene, Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) mu Southern Rhodesia, na African National Congress (ANC) mu kulimbana kwawo na apartheid mu South Africa, na South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) mu kulimbana kwawo kuti Namibia yipoke wanangwa. Kweniso ku Zambia ndiko kukachitika maungano ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, ofesi yikuru ya ANC yikaŵa ku Lusaka, ndipo ZAPU yikaŵa na msasa wa ŵasilikari mu Zambia. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo gha vyaumoyo, cifukwa caru ca South Africa na Southern Rhodesia vikapoka vinthu mu Zambia.

Ntchito za ku Rhodesia zakususkana na chigaluka zikafika mu Zambia pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) ŵakakoma ndege ziŵiri za Vickers Viscount (Air Rhodesia Flight 825 pa 3 September 1978 na Air Rhodesia Flight 827 pa 12 February 1979) na mabomba gha SA-7 gha Soviet. Pakuwezgera cifukwa ca kuwombera ndege ya 825 mu Seputembala 1978, mawupu gha Rhodesian Air Force ghakawukira gulu la ZIPRA pa famu ya Westlands kufupi na Lusaka mu Okutobala 1978, kuchenjezga ŵasilikari ŵa Zambia pa wayilesi kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo.

Nkhondo izo zikacitika na caru ca Rhodesia zikapangiska kuti mphaka za Zambia na caru ici zijarike. Ndipouli, siteshoni ya Kariba iyo yili pa Mlonga wa Zambezi, yikaŵa na magesi ghakukwana kuti charu chiŵe na magesi. TAZARA, njanji yakuya ku dowoko la ku Tanzania la Dar es Salaam, iyo yikazengeka na wovwiri wa ku China, yikawovwira kuti Zambia yileke kuthemba njanji iyo yikendanga kumwera kwa South Africa na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Angola.

Nkhondo za mukati mu caru ca Mozambique na Angola zikacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵacimbilire ku Zambia.

Ku vyaru vinyake, Zambia wakaŵa yumoza wa vyaru ivyo vikukolerana yayi (Non-Aligned Movement, NAM), ndipo mu 1970 ku Lusaka kukacitika ungano wa ŵalara ŵa vyaru. Kenneth Kaunda wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu ili mu 1970-1973. Pakati pa vyaru vya NAM, Zambia yikaŵa pafupi comene na Yugoslavia. Kuwaro kwa NAM, Zambia nayo wakaŵa paubwezi na China.

Mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Congo, Zambia yikawovwira Zimbabwe na Congo kweni yikaŵapo yayi.[37][38][39]

Ndondomeko ya vipani vinandi

Umaliro wa muwuso wa chipani chimoza

Ŵanthu ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca muwuso wa chipani cimoza ndiposo suzgo la cuma. Mu 1981, mu caru cose mukacitika viwawa vinandi. Boma likakaka ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa wupu uwu, kusazgapo Frederick Chiluba. Mu 1986 na 1987, ku Lusaka na ku Copperbelt kukaŵaso viwawa. Ivi vikalondezgana na vivulupi ivyo vikacitika mu 1990 cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mtengo wa vyakurya. Mu chaka chenechicho, wayilesi ya boma yikati Kaunda walekeskeka na ŵasilikari. Ici cikaŵa cautesi, ndipo ciyezgo ca kuwukira boma ku Zambia mu 1990 cikatondeka.

Kaunda wakawona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kusintha vinthu. Iyo wakalayizga kuti wazamunozga vyaru vinandi ndipo wakalekeska vyaru ivyo vikazomerezgekanga yayi. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe vipani viphya 11. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, ŵakumanyikwa comene ni Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Frederick Chiluba, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa vyamalonda. Pamanyuma pakuti maboma ghaphya ghakanjilirapo, ŵanthu ŵakazomerezga yayi kuti paŵe mavoti gha vipani vinandi.[40]

Frederick Chiluba na MMD

Paumaliro, mu 1991, ŵakalemba dango liphya la boma. Ŵanthu ŵakatenge mavoti agha nga wanangwa kweniso ngaurunji, ndipo Chiluba wakapokera 76% ya mavoti gha pulezidenti.

Nangauli Chiluba wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa vyachuma, kweni wakaŵa ku woko lamalyero la Kaunda. Na wovwiri wa International Monetary Fund na World Bank, uko Zambia wakaŵa na ngongoli zinandi, wakawoneseska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu vyaru vyawo mwa kukanizga boma kunjilirapo, kuwoneseska kuti mabungwe gha boma ghawelere ku maboma ghawo, nga ni vyamkuŵa, na kuwuskapo wovwiri pa vinthu vyakupambanapambana, comenecomene tirigu.

Apo boma la chipani cimoza likamara mu 1991, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga kuti Zambia yizamuŵa na demokilase. Ndipouli, ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga vikaŵa vyambura kupulikikwa chifukwa cha umo MMD yikachitira na ŵakususka. Vinthu vyakukayikiska ivyo vikachitika pa nkhani ya kusintha malango na kukaka ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ndyali, vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵadandawurenge.[33]

Kuwukira boma

Mu 1993, nyuzipepara ya boma ya The Times of Zambia, yikalemba nkhani yakukhwaskana na pulani ya UNIP ya kuwukira boma mwakuyana na dango yayi. Ndondomeko iyi yikasazgapo vivulupi vya mu vyalo, kukhozgera nkhaza, na kwambiska viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵanandi. UNIP yikakana yayi kuti pali pulani iyi, kweni yikayowoya kuti yikaŵa cigaŵa ca ndondomeko yawo yayi, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵankhaza mu chipani. Boma likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo yikuru ndipo ŵanthu 26 ŵakajalirika mu jele. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 7 kusazgapo mwana wa Kenneth Kaunda zina lake Wezi Kaunda ŵakeruzgika na milandu yakususkana na wanangwa wa boma. Ŵanyake wose ŵakaŵafumiska.

Pambere vyaru vindachite mavoti mu 1996, UNIP yikakolerana na vipani vinyake vinkhondi na cimoza. Kenneth Kaunda wakaŵa kuti wafumapo kale mu ndyali, kweni pamanyuma pa suzgo mu chipani chifukwa cha "Zero Option Plan", wakawelera, ndipo wakasintha Kesby Musokotwane. Kufuma apo, boma la Chiluba likasintha dango la boma, ndipo likazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanthu awo ŵapapi ŵawo mbazengezgani ŵa Zambia ŵaŵe pulezidenti. Mazgu agha ghakaŵa ghakuyowoya na Kaunda, uyo ŵapapi ŵake wose ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Malawi. Pakususka, UNIP na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakacicizga mavoti, agho Chiluba na MMD ŵakatonda.

Mu 1997, vinthu vikasintha. Pa Okutobala 28, boma likayezga kutimbanizga boma, ndipo gulu la ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari likapoka wayilesi ya boma, ndipo ŵakapharazga uthenga wakuti Chiluba ni pulezidenti yayi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara cifukwa cakuti Chiluba wakapharazgaso kuti kuli suzgo. Munthu yumoza wakafwa pa nyengo ya mulimo uwu. Ŵapolisi ŵakakora ŵanthu ŵakukwana 84 awo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakakhwaskika. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Kenneth Kaunda na Dean Mungomba, mulongozgi wa chipani cha Zambia Democratic Congress. Ŵanthu ŵakasuska na kususka ivyo ŵakachita, ŵakati ni vyambura kuzomerezgeka mu Zambia na kuwaro kwa charu. Kaunda wakafwatulika mu Juni chaka chakulondezgapo, kweni ŵasilikari 44 awo ŵakachitako chipani ichi ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke mu 2003.[41]

Chisankho cha 2001

Pambere ŵandalute ku mavoti mu 2001, Chiluba wakayezga kusintha malango gha boma kuti wazakaŵepo pa mavoti ghachitatu. Iyo wakacicizgika kuti walekepo pa fundo iyi pamanyuma pa kugazgana kufuma mukati mwa chipani kweniso ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia. Wakayezga kusintha malango gha boma kuti wazakaŵepo pa mavoti ghachitatu mu 2001, kweni wakaleka ntchito iyi pamanyuma pa kugazgana kukuru. Munthu uyo wakamusankhira malo wakaŵa Levy Patrick Mwanawasa.[42]

Kufuma mu 2008

Kufuma mu 2011 mpaka 2014, pulezidenti wa Zambia wakaŵa Michael Sata, mpaka apo Sata wakafwira pa 28 Okutobala 2014.[43] Wakaŵa mulongozgi waciŵiri wa Zambia uyo wakafwira pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa Levy Mwanawasa mu 2008. Rupiah Banda wakaŵa purezidenti wa Zambia pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Mwanawasa kufuma mu 2008 mpaka 2011. Wakathereskeka na Michael Sata mu 2011. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Sata, Vice President Guy Scott, wa ku Zambia uyo wakafuma ku Scotland, ndiyo wakaŵa President wa Zambia. Pa 24 Janyuwale 2015, wakapharazga kuti Edgar Chagwa Lungu watonda pa chisankho kuti waŵe pulezidenti wa 6. Mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2016 pa chisankho cha Zambia, pulezidenti Edgar Lungu wakathereskeka mu chigaŵa chakwamba. Chipani chakususka chikaŵa na milandu ya upusikizgi ndipo chipani cha Patriotic Front (PF) chikakana ivyo chipani cha UPND chikayowoya.[44]

Pa chisankho cha pulezidenti mu Ogasiti 2021, mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka Hakainde Hichilema wakathereska pulezidenti Edgar Lungu. Pa 24 Ogasiti 2021, Hakainde Hichilema wakalapa kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa Zambia.[45][46]

Wonaniso

Ukaboni

  1. ↑ "Zambia Gains its Independence From the U.K." African American Registry (in English). Retrieved 2022-04-17.
  2. ↑ Malcolm Southwood, Bruce Cairncross & Mike S. Rumsey (2019). "Minerals of the Kabwe ("Broken Hill") Mine, Central Province, Zambia, Rocks & Minerals". Rocks & Minerals. 94:2: 114–149. doi:10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038. S2CID 135446729.
  3. ↑ Holmes, Timothy (1998). Cultures of the World: Zambia. Tarrytown, New York: Times Books International. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-7614-0694-5.
  4. ↑ "Twa". Zambia's Traditional History (in English). 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
  5. ↑ Taylor, Scott D. "Culture and Customs of Zambia" (PDF). Greenwood Press. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  6. ↑ Bostoen, Koen (2018-04-26). "The Bantu Expansion". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (in English). doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
  7. ↑ "The Project Gutenberg eBook of South and South Central Africa, by H. Frances Davidson". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2020-10-29.
  8. ↑ "Ila". Zambia's Traditional History (in English). 2019-01-12. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
  9. ↑ "Origins of trade - Zambia Travel Guide". www.zambia-travel-guide.com. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  10. ↑ Pikirayi, Innocent (August 2017). "Ingombe Ilede and the demise of Great Zimbabwe". Antiquity (in English). 91 (358): 1085–1086. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.95. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 158120419.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-11-07.
  12. ↑ "Luba". Zambia's Traditional History (in English). 2019-08-08. Retrieved 2020-11-07.
  13. ↑ "Luba | people". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-07.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-11-29.
  15. ↑ "Luba". Zambia's Traditional History (in English). 2019-08-08. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
  16. ↑ Azuonye, Chukwuma (1996-12-15). Chokwe: (Angola, Zambia) (in English). The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8239-1990-1.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "The Maravi Confederacy". Think Africa (in American English). 2018-12-26. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
  18. ↑ Maptia. "The Secret Cult of Nyau Dancers". Maptia (in English). Retrieved 2021-01-03.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Mutapa". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-01-01.
  20. ↑ "Mwene Matapa | historical dynastic title, southern Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2020-12-31.
  21. ↑ "Mutapa". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2020-12-31.
  22. ↑ "Rozwi | historical state, Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Mfecane | African history". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  24. ↑ The elites of Barotseland, 1878–1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province: a. Gerald L. Caplan, C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970, ISBN 978-0-900966-38-5
  25. ↑ Bantu-Languages.com, citing Maniacky 1997
  26. ↑ "Lozi | people". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  27. ↑ Walubita, Moses (September 8, 2015). "Lusaka has come a long way". Zambia dailymail. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 "Zambia - Colonial rule | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in English). Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  29. ↑ Parpart, Jane L.; Freund, Bill (1983). "The Politicization of Black Labor". Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt. Temple University Press. pp. 54–74. doi:10.2307/j.ctv6mtdm4.10. JSTOR j.ctv6mtdm4.10.
  30. ↑ Provincial administration. "History".
  31. ↑ "Southern Africa - European and African interaction in the 19th century | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in English). Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  32. ↑ There were only eight indigenous Graduates in the country at Independence
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Elections in Zambia". African Elections Database. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
  34. ↑ "Kaunda, Unopposed, Re‐elected Zambian President for 3d Term". The New York Times (in American English). 1973-12-07. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  35. ↑ Zambia Daily Mail. 21 April 1971. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  36. ↑ "Zambia - Economic History". Biz/ed. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
  37. ↑ "Republic of Zambia". Republic of Zambia e-Pamodzi portal.
  38. ↑ "RESOLUTIONSOF THETHIRD CONFERENCE OF NON-ALIGNED STATES With Selected Conference Statements and Comments" (PDF). Africaportal.org. 1970.
  39. ↑ Moorcraft, Paul L.; McLaughlin, Peter (2008) [1982]. The Rhodesian War: A Military History. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. pp. 140–143. ISBN 978-1-84415-694-8.
  40. ↑ "Kenneth Kaunda: The dove which triumphed over hawks and vultures, By Owei Lakemfa" (in British English). 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  41. ↑ "Zambia: Forty-four soldiers to be executed". Amnesty. Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2006-10-16.
  42. ↑ Bearak, Barry (2008-08-20). "Levy Mwanawasa, Zambia President, Dies at 59". The New York Times (in American English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-10-05.
  43. ↑ "TEXT-Zambian President Banda's concession speech". Reuters (in English). 2011-09-23. Retrieved 2021-10-05.
  44. ↑ "Zambia's President Edgar Lungu declared election winner". BBC News (in British English). 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2021-10-05.
  45. ↑ "Zambia's Hakainde Hichilema sworn in as President in rare victory for an African opposition leader". 24 August 2021.
  46. ↑ "Zambia election: Hakainde Hichilema beats President Edgar Lungu". BBC News (in British English). 2021-08-16. Retrieved 2021-10-05.

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