Wikipedia

Visopa vya ku Africa

Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakugomezga na kuchita ni vyakupambanapambana.[1][2] Kanandi, maluso agha ghakuyowoyeka na mulomo m'malo mwa Malemba ndipo ghakupharazgika kufuma ku muwiro umoza kuya ku unyake kwizira mu nkhani za ŵanthu, sumu, na viphikiro,[3][4][5] ndipo ghakusazgapo kugomezga mizimu na ŵachiuta ŵapacanya na ŵa pasi, nyengo zinyake kusazgapo munthu wapachanya, kweniso kusopa ŵakufwa, na kugwiliskira nchito masalamusi na munkhwala wa ku Africa. Visopa vinandi vikulongosoreka kuti ni vyamoyo[6][7] na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya cisopa na cisopa.[1][8] Ntchito ya ŵanthu yikuwoneka kuti yikukolerana na vinthu vyachilengiwa.[1][9]

Nkhani iyi yikukhumbikwira kusazgilamo vinyake kuti ikule.
This article needs to be revised.

Kufalikira

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Munthu wakuchizga wa ku Nigeria, West Africa.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga visopa vya mu Africa ŵali mu vyaru 43. [10][11]

Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa lero ŵakulondezga Chikhristu panji Chisilamu, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa kanandi ŵakusazgapo maluso gha visopa vyawo na maluso gha visopa vya Abrahamu.[12][13][14][15][16] Visopa viŵiri ivi vikusangika mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, kweni vinandi vikusangika mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Visopa ivi vikasintha visopa vya ku Africa, kweni kanandi vikukolerana na mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Abrahamu, chomenechomene awo ŵakugomezga kuti kuli Chiuta yumoza pera, ŵakamba kugomezga chisopa ichi.[17]

Ŵalondezgi ŵa visopa vya ku Africa ŵali pa caru cose. Sonosono apa, visopa vinandi, nga ntchisopa cha Ŵayoruba, vyazara chomene. Cisopa ca Ŵayoruba cikujintha misisi mu virwa vya ku Caribbean na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Central na South America. Mu United States, Voodoo yikuru comene mu vyaru vya ku Gulf of Mexico.[18]

Fundo Zakwamba

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Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga vikukolerana na visambizgo vyautesi vya visopa vya ku Africa. Ivi vikusazgapo kusopa ŵachiuta, kusopa vyamoyo, kusopa ŵasekuru, na kugomezga kuti para munthu wafwa wakulutilira kuŵa na umoyo, nga umo viliri na visopa vinyake vya ku Japan, nga ni Shinto panji vya ku Europe. Nangauli visopa vinyake vikuwona kuti kuli chiuta yumoza pera uyo wali kulenga vinthu vyose, kweni vinyake vikuwona kuti kuli ŵachiuta ŵanandi.[19] Visopa vya ku Africa navyo vikukolerana na visambizgo vyautesi.[20]

Chisopa cha ku Africa, nga umo viliri na visambizgo vinandi vyakale pa charu chose, chikajintha pa maluso gha ŵanthu. Maluso agha ni visambizgo vya cisopa yayi, kweni ni mikhaliro iyo yikusangika mu nkhani, vidokoni, na vidokoni, kufuma ku muwiro umoza kuya ku unyake. Ŵanthu ŵa mu cikaya na mbumba zawo, kweniso malo agho munthu wakukhalako, ni vyakuzirwa comene pa umoyo wake. Awo ŵakulondezga Yesu ŵakugomezga kuti mizimu ya ŵasekuru ŵawo yikuŵalongozga. Mu visopa vinandi vya ku Africa, muli ŵalongozgi ŵa cisopa na ŵasembe. Ŵanthu aŵa mbakukhumbikwa comene kuti ŵanthu ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵakukhora mwauzimu na kusopa. Pali ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakuchizga na 'kuwukwa' nga umo vikuŵira na ŵasamani. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakucemeka na ŵasekuru panji ŵachiuta. Ŵakusambizgika vinthu vinandi, kusazgapo umo ŵangagwiliskira nchito vyakumera kuti ŵagowokere ŵalwari ndiposo vinthu vinyake vyamahara, nga nkhusanga cinthu cakubisika kwambura kumanya uko cili. Visopa vya ku Africa vikugomezga kuti ŵasekuru ŵakuŵa paubwezi na ŵabali ŵawo. Mizimu ya ŵasekuru kanandi yikuŵa yiwemi ndiposo yiwemi. Vinthu viheni ivyo mizimu ya ŵasekuru yikucita vikupangiska matenda ghacoko waka kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti ŵanjira mu nthowa yiheni.[21]

Visopa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa vikukolerana na kusopa ŵasekuru, kugomezga kuti kuli mizimu, vyamoyo vyamahara, na wanangwa wakusankha. Ŵanthu awo ŵali kufwa (na vinyama panji vinthu vyakuzirwa) ŵacali ŵamoyo ku malo gha mizimu ndipo ŵangakhwaska panji kucezga na caru. Kusopa ŵachiuta ŵanandi kukaŵa kwachilendo mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa na vyaru vinyake pambere Chisilamu, Chikhristu, na Chiyuda vindambe. Chisopa chautesi icho chikaŵako nyengo yichoko waka chikaŵa cha Farawo Akhenaten, uyo wakaphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵalombenge kwa chiuta wawo Aten.[22] Kweni mwana wake muchoko chomene, Tutankhamun, wakawuskapo chisopa ichi.[23][24][25][26] Ŵachiuta ŵankhongono, pamoza na ŵachiuta ŵanyake ŵapadera, mizimu ya ŵasekuru, mizimu ya vigaŵa, na vyamoyo, ni nkhani iyo yikusangika mu visopa vya mu Africa, ndipo yikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakale ŵa ku Africa ŵakachitiranga vinthu.[26][27][28] Ŵachiuta ŵankhongono, pamoza na ŵachiuta ŵanyake ŵapadera, mizimu ya ŵasekuru, mizimu ya vigaŵa, na vyamoyo, ni nkhani yakuzomerezgeka mu visopa vya mu Africa, ndipo vikulongosora za kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa wakale. 26][27][28] Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti visambizgo vinyake vya cisopa cimoza, nga nkhugomezga mwa Ciuta panji nkhongono yikuru (pamoza na ŵachiuta ŵanyake ŵanandi, ŵachiuta na mizimu, nyengo zinyake ŵakuwoneka nga ni awo ŵakwendeska pakati pa ŵanthu na Mlengi) vikaŵako mu Africa, pambere visopa vya Abrahamu vindaŵeko. Fundo izi zikapambananga na chisopa chautesi icho chikaŵa mu visopa vya Abrahamu.[26][29][30][31]

 
Munthu wakwimba sumu ya Koku

Nakuti munkhwala wa ku Africa ukukolerana na visopa vya ku Africa. Kuyana na Clemmont E. Vontress, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa vikukolerana cifukwa ca cisopa ca Animisimu. Kuyana na iyo, kugomezga mizimu na ŵasekuru ni fundo yakuzirwa comene mu visopa vya ku Africa. Ŵachiuta aŵa ŵakajipangira ŵekha panji ŵakafuma ku mizimu panji ŵasekuru awo ŵanthu ŵakaŵasopanga. Wakayowoyaso kuti visopa vinandi vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa vikakhwaskika chomene na visopa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa yayi, chomenechomene Chikhristu na Chisilamu.[32]

Visopa vya ku Africa vikugomezga kuti para munthu wafwa wakuwuka, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti para munthu wafwa wakubabikaso.[33]

Jacob Olupona, uyo ni pulofesa wa chisopa cha ku Africa pa yunivesite ya Harvard, wakayowoya kuti visopa vinandi vya ku Africa vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Kusopa ŵasekuru nkhwakuzirwa chomene mu mitheto ya ku Africa ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakuwona kuti ndiko nkhwakuzirwa chomene. Ŵasekuru (viŵanda vya ŵasekuru) ŵaliko nadi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵasekuru ŵakukhala mu malo gha mizimu.[34]

Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya umo ŵachiuta na ŵasekuru ŵaliri, kweni ŵakugomezga kuti ŵasekuru ŵali na umoyo wapachanya kuluska ŵanthu ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵangapeleka vitumbiko panji matenda ku ŵana ŵawo.

Ŵasekuru ŵangapeleka ulongozgi na kucindika ŵana ŵawo awo ŵacali ŵamoyo, kweni ŵangapemphaso kuti malo ghawo ghakupatulika ghakhalenge makora. Chipulikano mu ŵasekuru chikulongoraso kuti umoyo wauzimu wa mu Africa ngwakukolerana na ŵanthu wose.

Olupona wakukana fundo ya ku Western/Islam ya kusopa Chiuta yumoza ndipo wakuti fundo izi zingapulikiska yayi maluso gha ku Africa ndipo ni zakusuzga. Nangauli visambizgo vinyake vikuyowoya kuti kuli chiuta munyake uyo wali pachanya pa wose, kweni vinyake vikuyowoya nthena yayi. Kusopa Ciuta yumoza kukuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakuwonera ŵachiuta na vilengiwa vyauzimu. Iyo wakalongosora kuti visopa vya mu Africa ni visopa pera yayi, kweni ni umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu.[35]

Viphikiro

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Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na vya ku Central Africa, ŵanthu ŵakuchita viphikiro panji maluso gha kuwukwa. Mulimo unyake wa cisopa uwo ukucitika mu Gabon na Cameroon ni Okuyi, uwo ukucitika na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu chigaŵa ichi, kwakuyana na chigaŵa, kuvina kwa viŵiya panji viŵiya ivyo ŵakwimba ŵakumanyikwa (vyose ivyo ni vyapadera kwa chiuta panji ŵasekuru), awo ŵakuchitako ŵakuŵa na chiuta panji ŵasekuru, nkhongono panji maghanoghano mwa kuchita maluso panji kuvina uko kukovwira kuti ŵamanye vinandi.[36]

Para munthu wakuwona na kupulikiska umo vinthu viliri, wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Ivi vikovwira munthu kuti wapambaniskenge pakati pa umo wakujipulikira na umo vinthu vikuŵira mu umoyo wake. Para munthu waŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana pa nkhani ya nkhongono panji umo wakujipulikira, vikovwira kuti wamanye umo wangachitira na masuzgo agha. Ici cikovwira kuti nkhongono izi zileke kuwoneka makora na kuzgoka nkharo yiwemi, maghanoghano, na kayowoyero. Kweniso, para munthu uyo wali na maluso gha kusopa panji wavinjeru wakung'anamura mazgu agha, wangamanya nthowa iyo wupu (panji munthu) wangalondezga kuti wafiske chilato chake.[37]

Moŵa

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Awo ŵakulondezga visopa vya mu Africa ŵakulomba mizimu yakupambanapambana kweniso ŵasekuru ŵawo.[38] Ici cikusazgapo cilengiwa, vilengiwa vyauzimu, na vinyama. Kanandi palije mphambano pakati pa mizimu yankhongono na ŵachiuta. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu vyaru vya mu Africa ŵakugomezga kuti kuli ŵachiuta ŵanandi kweniso ŵachiuta na mizimu yinandi. Paliso visopa vinyake ivyo vili na munthu yumoza pera (Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai, Roog, etc.).[ 39] Ŵanyake ŵakumanya kuti kuli chiuta na chiuta mwanakazi ŵaŵiri nga ni Mawu-Lisa.[39] Some recognize a dual god and goddess such as Mawu-Lisa.[40]

Visopa vya ku Africa vikugomezga kuti para munthu wafwa wakuluta ku caru cinyake, ndipo kusopa ŵasekuru nkhwakuzirwa comene. Visopa vinyake vya ku Africa vikamba kuwona vinthu mwakupambana na visopa vya Chisilamu panji Chihindu.[41][42]

Maluso na maluso

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Masks a Bakongo ochokera ku Central Congo

Mu visopa vyose vya mu Africa, pali vinthu vinandi vyakuyana kuluska ivyo vikupambana, nangauli Jacob Olupona wakalemba kuti nchakusuzga kuviyaniska cifukwa ca kupambana kwa visopa ivi.[43] Ŵachiuta na mizimu ŵakuchindikika kwizira mu sembe za nyama, mphangwe, vyakurya vyakuphika, maluŵa, malibwe ghakuzirwa na visulo vyakuzirwa. Munthu uyo wakugomezga Chiuta wakuchita ivyo ŵachiuta ŵakukhumba.[44] Visopa vya ku Africa vikukolerana na umo vinthu vikuŵira mu charu. Gottlieb na Mbiti ŵakuti:

Vinthu vyakuthupi na vyakuthupi vikukolerana na visopa na mitheto ya ku Africa. Ici nchifukwa cakuti visambizgo vya cilengiwa na vigomezgo vikukolerana comene na vinthu vya mu cilengiwa. Vinthu vyose nga ni vula, kududumira, ŵaleza, vula, zuŵa, mwezi, dazi, nyenyezi, na vinyake vingaŵa vyakuti munthu wangavilamulira mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakughanaghanira. Vinthu vyakuthupi ndivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kusanga vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wawo.[45]

Mwaciyelezgero, mu cisopa ca Serer, nyenyezi yimoza yakupatulika comene mu mlengalenga yikucemeka Yoonir (Nyenyezi ya Siriyo).[46] Ŵasembe na ŵasembe ŵanakazi ŵa ku Serer (Saltigue) ŵakupeleka maungano gha chaka na chaka pa Xooy Ceremony (ciphikiro ca kuwukwa) mu Fatick pambere nyengo ya Yoonir yindakwane.[47]

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuchizga ŵalwari mu vigaŵa vinandi.

Kuwukwa

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Charu cha Yoruba chakwambilira kwa m'ma 1900

Pakuti mu Africa muli ŵanthu ŵa mitundu na mitheto yakupambanapambana, pali nthowa yimoza yayi ya kuwukwa. Munthu wangaponya vinthu vichoko waka nga ni viwangwa, viswaswa, malibwe, vikumba, panji mathabwa.

 
Wakuchizga wa ku South Africa

wakuŵerenga viwangwa]]

Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito mbale zakupatulika za makuni panji ŵakuzigwiliskira nchito pa caru.

Mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku awo ŵakuwukwa. Kanandi palije dango lakukanizga kuchita nthena. Ŵalongozgi ŵavinjeru ŵakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca vinjeru vyawo ndiposo cifukwa ca kumanya makora vyakurya.

Nkharo yiwemi na viheni

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Mu cisopa ca ku Africa, kaŵirikaŵiri nkharo yiweme yikukolerana na kufiska milimo ya mu cikaya. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni kucindika ŵapapi na ŵalara, kulera makora ŵana, kupokelera ŵalendo, kuŵa ŵakugomezgeka, kweniso kuŵa na cikanga.

Mu visopa vinyake vya ku Africa, nkharo yiwemi yikukolerana na kupulikira panji kuleka kupulikira Ciuta. Ŵanthu ŵa Kikuyu ŵakugomezga kuti Chiuta, uyo wakuyowoya kwizira mu ŵachiuta ŵachoko, wakovwira munthu kuŵa na njuŵi yiwemi.

Mu vigaŵa vinandi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali kuzgokera ku visopa vinyake ŵakulutilira kusunga mitheto yawo na maluso ghawo.[48]

Malo ghakupatulika

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Malo ghanyake ghakupatulika gha visopa vyawo ni: Nri-Igbo, Point of Sangomar, Yaboyabo, Fatick, Ife, Oyo, Dahomey, Benin City, Ouidah, Nsukka, Kanem, Bornu Empire na Tulwap Kipsigis.

Kutambuzgika cifukwa ca cisopa

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Visopa vya mu Africa vikususkika na Ŵakhristu na Ŵasilamu.[49][50] Awo ŵakulondezga visopa ivi ŵakunjira mu cisopa ca Cisilamu na Cikhristu, ndipo ŵakuŵasuska na kuŵataya. ^ ndime.[51] Vinthu ivi ni kukoma ŵanthu, kurwa nkhondo, kuparanya malo ghakupatulika, na vinthu vinyake vyakofya.[52][53]

Chifukwa cha kutambuzgika na kusankhana, kweniso chifukwa cha kuleka kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Dinka ŵakakana panji kusulako visambizgo vya Chisilamu na Chikhristu.[54]


Maukaboni

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) Molefi Kete Asante
  2. ↑ Ndlovu, Tommy Matshakayile (1995). Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele. Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube. Gweru,GasiyaZimbabwe: Mambo Press. ISBN 0-86922-624-X. OCLC 34114180.
  3. ↑ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford handbook of global religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513798-1. OCLC 64084086.
  4. ↑ Mbiti, John S. (1991). Introduction to African religion. Oxford [England]: Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 0-435-94002-3. OCLC 24376978.
  5. ↑ Nweke, Kizito Chinedu (2022-12-25). "Responding to new Imageries in African indigenous Spiritualties". Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama dan Lintas Budaya. 6 (3): 271–282. doi:10.15575/rjsalb.v6i3.20246. ISSN 2528-7249. S2CID 255213985.
  6. ↑ Kimmerle, Heinz (2006-04-11). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa (in American English). 2 (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  7. ↑ Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:10.4135/9781452231648, ISBN 9780761930471, retrieved 2019-10-31
  8. ↑ An African Story BBC Archived November 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  9. ↑ What is religion? An African understanding Archived May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
  10. ↑ Britannica Book of the Year (2003), Encyclopædia Britannica (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306
    According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 480,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham, A World Religions Reader (1996) Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers Archived Malichi 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture (see Amadu Jacky Kaba). The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, (June 2005), discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedias, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed on figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here Archived Malichi 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
  11. ↑ Lugira, Aloysius M., African Traditional Religions (New York: Chelsea House, 2009), p. 36 [in] Varghese, Roy Abraham, Christ Connection: How the World Religions Prepared the Way for the Phenomenon of Jesus, Paraclete Press (2011), p. 1935, ISBN 9781557258397 [1] (Retrieved 24 March 2019)
  12. ↑ Mbiti, John S (1992). Introduction to African religion. ISBN 9780435940027.When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional religion with the one to which they are converted. In this way they are not losing something valuable, but are gaining something from both religious customs
  13. ↑ Riggs, Thomas (2006). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations. p. 1. ISBN 9780787666125.Although a large proportion of Africans have converted to Islam an Christianity, these two world religions have been assimilated into African culture, and many African Christians and Muslims maintain traditional spiritual beliefs
  14. ↑ Gottlieb, Roger S (2006-11-09). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. ISBN 9780195178722.Even in the adopted religions of Islam and Christianity, which on the surface appear to have converted millions of Africans from their traditional religions, many aspect of traditional religions are still manifest
  15. ↑ "US study sheds light on Africa's unique religious mix". AFP.t doesn't seem to be an either-or for many people. They can describe themselves primarily as Muslim or Christian and continue to practice many of the traditions that are characteristic of African traditional religion," Luis Lugo, executive director of the Pew Forum, told AFP.
  16. ↑ Quainoo, Samuel Ebow (2000-01-01). In Transitions and consolidation of democracy in Africa. ISBN 9781586840402.Even though the two religions are monotheistic, most African Christians and Muslims convert to them and still retain some aspects of their traditional religions
  17. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 9780852299562 p.306. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 45%. It was also estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.6%.
  18. ↑ "Ancient African Religion Finds Roots In America". NPR.org (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-27.
  19. ↑ Kimmerle, Heinz (2006-04-11). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa (in American English). 2 (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  20. ↑ Asukwo (2013). "The Need to Re-Conceptualize African Traditional Religion".
  21. ↑ "African Traditional Religion | South African History Online". www.sahistory.org.za. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
  22. ↑ Hornung, Erik (2001). Akhenaten and the religion of light. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8725-0. OCLC 48417401.
  23. ↑ Hexham, Irvin ((1981), Lord of the Sky-King of the earth: Zulu Traditional Religion and Belief in the Skrelicsy God, Sciences Religieuses Studies in Religion, vol. 10: 273-78)
  24. ↑ Busia, K. A. (1963). "Has the distinction between primitive and higher religions any sociological significance ?". Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions. 16 (1): 22–25. doi:10.3406/assr.1963.1996.
  25. ↑ Peterson, Olof. "Foreigen influences on the idea of God in African religions".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Okwu AS (1979). "Life, Death, Reincarnation, and Traditional Healing in Africa". Issue: A Journal of Opinion. 9 (3): 19–24. doi:10.2307/1166258. JSTOR 1166258.
  27. ↑ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia (in English). SAGE. ISBN 9781412981767.
  28. ↑ Baldick, Julian (1997). Black God: the Afroasiatic roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions. Syracuse University Press:ISBN 0-8156-0522-6
  29. ↑ The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, by Christopher Ehret, James Currey, 2002
  30. ↑ Ehret, Christopher (November 2004). "A Conversation with Christopher Ehret". World History Connected (Interview). Interviewed by Laichas, Tom. Retrieved 30 May 2020. (Citation with date provided here)
  31. ↑ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia (in English). SAGE. ISBN 9781412981767.
  32. ↑ Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:10.4135/9781452231648, ISBN 9780761930471, retrieved 2019-10-31
  33. ↑ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon". Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. Ball State University; Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 30: 70–84. doi:10.36366/frontiers.v30i1.405. There is an unwavering belief in life after death in traditional African religions with some even believing in reincarnation...
  34. ↑ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette (in American English). 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
  35. ↑ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette (in American English). 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
  36. ↑ Karade, B. The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts, pages 39–46. Samuel Weiser Inc, 1994
  37. ↑ Annemarie De Waal Malefijt (1968) Religion and Culture: an Introduction to Anthropology of Religion, p. 220–249, Macmillan
  38. ↑ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette (in American English). 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
  39. ↑ Willie F. Page (2001) Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, Volume 1, p. 55. Published by Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-4472-4
  40. ↑ Peter C. Rogers (2009) Ultimate Truth, Book 1, p100. Published by AuthorHouse, ISBN 1-4389-7968-1
  41. ↑ Parrinder, E. G. (1959). "Islam and West African Indigenous Religion". Numen. 6 (2): 130–141. doi:10.2307/3269310. ISSN 0029-5973. JSTOR 3269310.
  42. ↑ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon". Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 30: 70–84. doi:10.36366/frontiers.v30i1.405.
  43. ↑ John S. Mbiti (1990) African Religions & Philosophy 2nd Ed., p 100–101, Heinemann, ISBN 0-435-89591-5
  44. ↑ John S. Mbiti (1992) Introduction to African Religion 2nd Ed., p. 68, Published by East African Publishers ISBN 9966-46-928-1
  45. ↑ Roger S. Gottlieb (2006) The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology, p. 261, Oxford Handbooks Online ISBN 0-19-517872-6
  46. ↑ Henry Gravrand (1990) La Civilisation Sereer Pangool, PP 21, 152, Published by Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Sénégal, ISBN 2-7236-1055-1
  47. ↑ Simone Kalis (1997) Médecine Traditionnelle, Religion et Divination Chez les Seereer Siin du Sénégal: La Coonaissance de la Nuit, L'Harmattan, ISBN 2-7384-5196-9
  48. ↑ Resolving the Prevailing Conflicts Between Christianity and African (Igbo) Traditional Religion Through Inculturation, by Edwin Anaegboka Udoye
  49. ↑ Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame.
  50. ↑ M. Darrol Bryant, Rita H. Mataragnon, The Many faces of religion and society (1985), Page 100, https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nAAAAYAAJ:"African traditional religion went through and survived this type of persecution at the hands of Christianity and Islam..."
  51. ↑ Garrick Bailey, Essentials of Cultural Anthropology, 3rd edn (2013), p. 268:"Later, during the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries became active in Africa and Oceania. Attempts by Christian missionaries to convert nonbelievers to Christianity took two main forms: forced conversions and proselytizing."
  52. ↑ Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, Towards and Understanding of the African Experience (1990), p. 161:"The role of Christian missionaries are a private interest group in European colonial occupation of Africa was a significant one...Collectively their activities promoted division within traditional African societies into rival factions...the picture denigrated African culture and religion..."
  53. ↑ Toyin Falola et al., Hot Spot: Sub-Saharan Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa (2010), p. 7:"A religion of Middle Eastern origin, Islam reached Africa via the northern region of the continent by means of conquest. The Islamic wars of conquest that would lead to the Islamization of North Africa occurred first in Egypt, when in about 642 CE the country fell to the invading Muslim forces from Arabia. Over the next centuries, the rest of the Maghreb would succumb to Jihadist armies...The notion of religion conversion, whether by force or peaceful means, is foreign to indigenous African beliefs...Islam, however, did not become a religion of the masses by peaceful means. Forced conversion was an indispensable element of proselytization."
  54. ↑ Beswick, S. F. (1994). "Non-Acceptance of Islam in the Southern Sudan: The Case of the Dinka from the Pre-Colonial Period to Independence (1956)". Northeast African Studies. 1 (2/3): 19–47. doi:10.1353/nas.1994.0018. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 41931096. S2CID 143871492.
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