Wikipedia

Mbili ya Sudan

Mbiri ya charu cha Sudan yikuyowoya vya charu cha Republic of Sudan, icho mu 2011 chikazgoka charu cha South Sudan. Charu cha Sudan chili mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Africa, icho chikuchemekaso kuti "Sudan". Lizgu ili lili kufuma ku Chiarabu: بلاد السودان bilād as-sūdān, panji "charu cha ŵanthu ŵafipa",[1][2] Ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito lizgu ili kuti ŵayowoye za chigaŵa cha Sahel ku West na Central Africa.

Mapu gha Sudan kufuma mu 2011 apo South Sudan yikajiyimira payekha

Charu cha Sudan icho sono chikuchemeka kuti Republic of Sudan, chikamba kuwusa mu 1956. Mu nyengo iyo yikaŵa pambere chaka cha 1899 chindafike, lizgu lakuti "Sudan" likayowoyanga chomene vya charu cha Turkey cha Sudan na Mahdist State, kweniso chigaŵa chikuru icho chikaŵa pakati pa Eguputo kumpoto na vigaŵa vya kumwera kufupi na Uganda, Kenya, na Ethiopia.

Mbiri yakwambilira ya Ufumu wa Kush, uwo ukaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo kumpoto kwa Sudan, yikukolerana na mbiri ya Eguputo wakale, uwo ukaŵa na maufumu ghanandi. Cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa pafupi na Eguputo, Sudan yikawovwirapo pa mbiri ya vyaru vya ku Near East, pamoza na ufumu wakuzirwa wa 25 wa Eguputo na maufumu ghatatu gha Nubia, Nobatia, Makuria na Alodia. Chifukwa cha kusinthika kwa visopa, chiyowoyero chakale cha Ci-Nubian ndicho chikaŵa chakale chomene pa viyowoyero vyose vya ku Nilo-Sahara.

Apo Chisilamu chikaŵa kale mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi ya ku Sudan kwambira m'ma 700 C.E., chigaŵa cha Nile chikazgoka Chisilamu yayi m'paka m'ma 1400 C.E.-15 C.E., pamanyuma pakuti maufumu gha Chikhristu ghaparanyika. Ufumu wa Sennar ndiwo ukalongozganga chigaŵa chikuru cha Nile Valley na chipalamba cha kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kukawuka maufumu ghaŵiri, Ufumu wa Shilluk wa mu 1490, na Taqali wa mu 1750, kufupi na South Sudan wa mazuŵa ghano. Ufumu wa Muhammad Ali na awo ŵakamulondezganga ndiwo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakwiyire ŵamazaza ŵa ku Turkey, Egypt, na Britain.

Kufuma apo charu cha Sudan chikapokera wanangwa mu 1956, mbiri yake yikakhwaskika na nkhondo za mukati mwa chalo, nga ni Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Sudan (1955-1972), Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan (1983-2005), Nkhondo ya ku Darfur (2003-2010), iyo yikamara na kupatuka kwa South Sudan pa 9 July 2011 ndipo pamanyuma pake nkhondo yinyake yikamba (2013-2020).

Mbili yakwamba

 
Sabu-Jaddi Rock Art site: Cattle

Nile Valley

Wonaniso: A-Group culture, Sabu-Jaddi, and C-Group culture

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic ŵakakhalanga mu mizi ya mathipa, ndipo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto.[3] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakaluta ku chigaŵa ichi kufuma ku Sahara. Ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma mu mitheto iyi ŵakamba kukhala mu ufumu wa Kush (uyo ukaŵa na msumba wa Kerma) mu 1700 B.C.E. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na vinthu vyakale wakulongora kuti mu nyengo iyo Ufumu wa Farawo ukaŵa kuti undaŵeko, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lower Nubia na Magadan Upper Egypt ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana waka, ndipo nyengo yeneyiyo, mu 3300 B.C.E., ufumu wa Farawo ukamba kuwusa. Pamoza na vyaru vinyake ivyo vili mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi, charu cha Sudan ndicho chikaŵa malo agho Ŵaeguputo ŵakale ŵakachemanga kuti Punt (panji "Ta Netjeru", kung'anamura "Ndondomeko ya Chiuta").[4]

Eastern Sudan

Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan, gulu la Butana likawoneka cha m'ma 4000 B.C.E. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakapanganga viŵiya vyakutowa chomene, ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba zakutowa, ndipo ŵakwenera kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto, ŵalovi. Gulu la Gash likamba kuzingilizga 3000 B.C.E. ndipo ni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasopanga mu nyengo yakale. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakapanganga viŵiya vyadongo vyakutowa ndipo ŵakenderanga ulimi na viŵeto. Malo gha Mahal Teglinos ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene ndipo ghakaŵa na malo ghakukwana mahekitala 10. Mu msumba uwu mukaŵa nyumba zakuzengeka na mathipa. Makuni na vyakupimira vya makuni vikulongora kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito nthowa yapachanya. Para munthu wafwa ŵakamuŵikanga malibwe gha pa dindi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., gulu la Jebel Mokram likamba kuwusa. Ŵakapanganga viŵiya vyamalibwe ivyo vikaŵa na vinthu vyambura kukhumbikwa vinandi. Vingachitika kuti viŵeto vikendanga makora.[5]

Antiquity

Kingdom of Kush

Nkhani ikulu: Kingdom of Kush
 
Sudan combines the lands of several ancient kingdoms.

Mbiri yakale chomene ya kumpoto kwa Sudan yikufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo, awo ŵakalongosora kuti charu icho chikaŵa kumpoto kwa mlonga chikachemekanga Kush. Kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 2,000, ufumu wakale wa Eguputo (c. 2700-2180 B.C.E.) yikaŵa na mazaza chomene pa charu chakumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo nanga ni pamanyuma pake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakalutilira kulondezga mitheto yawo.

Mu vilimika vinandi, malonda ghakaŵa ghanandi. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakanyamuranga vyakurya kuluta ku Kush na kuwelera ku Aswan na mino gha zovu, vyakununkhira, vikumba vya nyama, na malibwe ghanyake agho ŵakaghagwiliskiranga nchito nga ni majoya na visulo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakatemwanga comene golide mu Nubia na ŵasilikari ŵa mu ŵasilikari ŵa Faro. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu Wakale, ŵasilikari ŵa Eguputo ŵakalutanga ku Kush. Kweni pakaŵavya uyo wakayezga kukhazikika mu chigaŵa ichi m'paka mu nyengo ya Middle Kingdom (c. 2100-1720 B.C.E.), apo Ŵaeguputo ŵakazenga vigongwe mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo m'paka kumwera kwa Samnah mu Lower Egypt kuti ŵavikilire golide uyo wakendanga kufuma ku migodi ya ku Wawat, chigaŵa icho chili pakati pa First na Second Cataracts.[3]

 
Kuwona mapiramidi gha Nubia ku Meroë (2001), msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Kush

Pafupifupi mu 1720 B.C.E., Ŵakenani awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghanyake, awo ŵakachemekanga kuti Ŵahikosi, ŵakatora charu cha Eguputo, ŵakamara muwuso wa Middle Kingdom, ŵakamara kukolerana na Kush, na kuparanya vigongwe ivyo vikaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ilo likaŵapo apo Ŵaeguputo ŵakafumanga mu Eguputo, ufumu wa Kushite ukaŵa na mitheto yakupambana. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu Waphya (c. 1570-1100 B.C.E.), Farawo Ahmose I wakazgora Kush kuŵa chigaŵa icho chikawusikanga na Ŵaeguputo. Nangauli Eguputo wakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa cha Kush m'paka ku Dambo lachinayi, kweni mabuku gha ku Eguputo ghakuyowoya za vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mumphepete mwa maji. Ŵalara ŵa boma ku Eguputo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵagomezgekenge kwa iwo. Ŵaegupto ŵakakhazganga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Kushite ŵaŵapenge golide na ŵantchito.

Ŵaegupto ŵakati ŵamba kulamulira caru ca Kush, ŵalara ŵa boma, ŵasofi, ŵamalonda, na ŵantchito ŵakamba kukhala mu caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuyowoya Chieguputo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasambazi ŵa ku Kush ŵakamba kusopa ŵachiuta ŵa Ŵaeguputo na kuŵazengera matempile. Visopa vikalutilira kusopa mu malo agha m'paka apo Chikhristu chikambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Apo Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kutemwera ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Kush ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbanthu ŵankhongono chomene.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1100 B.C.E., muwuso wa mafumu gha Ufumu uphya ukamara, ndipo boma la Eguputo likagaŵikana. Ŵaeguputo ŵakati ŵafumako, pakaŵavya mabuku panji vinthu vinyake vya ku Kush ivyo vikalembeka vyakukhwaskana na ivyo vikachitikanga mu chigaŵa ichi kwa vyaka 300. Ndipouli, kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., Kush wakazgoka ufumu wakujiyimira pawekha uwo ukawusikanga kufuma ku Napata na mathemba ghanyake agho ghakalutilira kuthereska ŵanthu mu Eguputo. Pafupifupi mu 750 B.C.E., themba la Kushite lakuchemeka Kashta likathereska Upper Egypt ndipo likaŵa fumu ya Thebes mpaka mu 740 B.C.E. Uyo wakamulondezga, Piye, wakathereska Nile Delta na kuthereska Eguputo, ndipo wakambiska muwuso wa ufumu wa 25. Piye wakambiska ufumu uwo ukawusa Kush na Thebes kwa vyaka pafupifupi 100. Cifukwa cakuti ufumu uwu ukakhwaskanga caru ca Asiriya mu vyaru vya ku Near East, pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa Eguputo na ufumu wankhongono wa Asiriya.

Taharqa (688-663 B.C.E.), fumu yaumaliro ya ku Kush, yikathereskeka na Senakeribu wa ku Asiriya. Esarhaddon, uyo wakanjira m'malo mwa Senakeribu, wakaluta patali chomene, ndipo wakawukira Eguputo mu 674 B.C.E., wakatonda Taharqa na kuwukira charu chose. Taharqa wakacimbilira ku Nubia, ndipo Ŵaasiriya ŵakimika ŵakaronga ŵa ku Eguputo kuŵa ŵateŵeti ŵa Esarhaddon. Ndipouli, Taharqa wakawelera ku Eguputo pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ndipo wakawuskako ufumu wa Ŵaasiriya ku Ŵaeguputo. Esarihadoni wakafwira mu msumba wake ukuru wa Nineve apo wakanozgekeranga kuwelera ku Egupto kuti wakacimbizge Ŵakushi.

Ashurbanipal, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Esarhaddon, wakatuma mulara wa ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵachoko waka, awo ŵakathereska na kufumiska Taharqa mu Eguputo. Taharqa wakafwa mu Nubia pakati pajumpha vilimika viŵiri. Munthu munyake uyo wakizira pamanyuma pake, zina lake Tantamani, wakayezga kuwukira Eguputo. Wakathereska Neko I, uyo wakaŵa muwusi uyo Ashurbanipal wakimika. Kufuma apo, Ŵaasiriya ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵankhongono kumwera. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Asiriya ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo msumba wa Thebes ukaparanyika. Psamtik I, uyo wakaŵa fumu ya ku Ethiopia, wakaŵikika pa chitengo cha ufumu wa Ashurbanipal, ndipo ufumu wa Kushite ukamara.

Meroë

Nkhani ikulu: Meroë

Ufumu unyake wa Ŵaegupto ukatondeka kuwusa caru ca Kush. Kweni mu 590 B.C.E., ŵasilikari ŵa Eguputo ŵakathereska Napata, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Kush ŵakasamira ku malo ghakukhora kumwera kwa Meroë kufupi na Dambo la Nambara 6. Kwa vilimika vinandi kufuma apo, ufumu wa Meroit ukayamba kulamulirika na Ŵaegupto yayi, ndipo pamasinda ukalamulirika na ŵa Irani, Ŵagiriki, na Ŵaroma. Pa nyengo iyo ufumu wake ukaŵa wankhongono comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 na 300 B.C.E., msumba wa Meroë ukaŵa kufupi na msumba wa Soba, kufupi na Khartoum, kumwera. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Meroë ŵakalutilira kulondezga mitheto ya Ŵafarao, ndipo ŵakazenganga malibwe ghakupimira ivyo ŵakachita pa nyengo ya kuwusa kwawo. Vinthu ivi na mabingu gha nyumba zacifumu, matempile, na malo ghakugezeramo ku Meroë vikulongora kuti boma likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na maluso ghawo. Pakuti malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakamba kuyowoya vilembo vya ku Eguputo.

Nthowa iyo Meroë wakendeskera ufumu yikaŵa ya kuhara yayi. Mulimo wa kandake panji mama wacifumu pakusankha ŵanakazi aŵa ukaŵa wakuzirwa comene. Vikuwoneka kuti mphumphu yikendanga kufuma kwa mubali kuya kwa mubali (panji mudumbu) ndipo yikendanga para palije mubali panji mudumbu uyo wasidika.

Nangauli Napata ndiyo yikaŵa msumba ukuru wa chisopa cha Meroë, kweni kumpoto kwa Kush kukaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Blemmyes, awo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nayelo, ŵakaŵasuzganga. Ndipouli, Mlonga wa Nayelo ukalutilira kupeleka mwaŵi ku ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵafike ku Meditereniyani. Kweniso, Meroë wakenderanga na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na India mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi, ndipo wakachitanga vinthu nga umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na India ŵakachitiranga. Kweni pali ukaboni unyake wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito visulo mu vyaru vinyake.

Nyengo zinyake vinthu vikendanga makora yayi pakati pa Meroë na Eguputo. Pakuzgora ivyo Meroë wakachita ku Upper Egypt, ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma ŵakaluta kumwera na kuparanya Napata mu 23 B.C.E. Ndipouli, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Romu wakafumamo mwaluŵiro mu msumba uwu, cifukwa wakawona kuti ukaŵa ukavu comene kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kuwukhalamo.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nobatia ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Kushi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari awo ŵakaguliskanga maluso ghawo ku Meroë kuti waŵavikilire. M'paka cha m'ma 400 C.E., Ŵaroma ŵakapelekanga ndalama ku Nobatia ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito msumba wa Meroë kuti uŵavikilire ku Ŵaeguputo.

Pa nyengo yeneyira, ufumu wakale wa Ŵameroti ukasuzgika cifukwa cakuti ufumu wankhongono wa Aksum ukafika kumafumiro gha dazi. Kuzakafika mu 350, Themba Ezana la ku Axum likapoka msumba ukuru wa Meroë na kuwuparanya.

Medieval Nubia (c. 350–1500)

Wonaniso: Makuria, Nobatia, and Alodia
 
Maufumu ghatatu gha Cikhristu gha ku Nubia. Mphaka ya kumpoto ya Alodia yikumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni yikwenera kuti yikaŵa kumpoto, pakati pa chigodobu chachinayi na chachisanu cha Nile.[6]

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Blemmy ŵakakhazikiska ufumu mu Upper Egypt na Lower Nubia, uwo ukaŵa pafupi na Talmis (Kalabsha). Kweni pambere chaka cha 450 C.E. chindafike, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nobatia ŵakaŵachimbizga kale mu Dambo la Nayelo. Paumaliro ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kuwusa mu ufumu wawo wa Nobatia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E., kukaŵa maufumu ghatatu gha ku Nubia: Nobatia kumpoto, ilo likaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Pachoras (Faras); ufumu wa pakatikati, Makuria uwo ukaŵa ku Tungul (Old Dongola), makilomita 13 kumwera kwa Dongola; na Alodia, uwo ukaŵa mukati mwa ufumu wakale wa Kushitic, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Soba (uno ni tawuni ya Khartoum). Ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E., panyake pakati pa 628 na 642, msumba wa Nobatia ukazgoka chigaŵa cha Makuria.

Pakati pa 639 na 641, Ŵaarabu ŵa mu ufumu wa Rashidun ŵakathereska charu cha Byzantium. Mu 641 panji 642 kweniso mu 652 ŵakanjira mu Nubia, kweni ŵakaŵachimbizga. Pamanyuma, themba la Makuria na Ŵaarabu ŵakazomerezga phangano lapadera lakuti ŵaleke kuwukira charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵaarabu ŵakatondeka kuthereska Nubia, kweni ŵakamba kukhala kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, uko ŵakazenga matawuni ghanandi na kutorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Beja.[7]

 
Bishopu wa ku Nubia na mwali Mariya pa cimati ca ku Faras (ca m'ma 1100)

Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 800 m'paka m'ma 1000 C.E., Chikhristu chikaŵa mu Nubia ndipo chikaŵa mu nyengo ya Golden Age. Mu 747, Makuria wakawukira Eguputo, uyo pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa wa Ŵaumaliyadi, ndipo wakawuskaso ufumu uwu mu ma 960, apo ukafika kumpoto kwa Akhmim. Makuria wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na Alodia, ndipo panji ici cikapangiska kuti maufumu ghaŵiri agha ghaŵe ufumu umoza. Chikhalidwe cha anthu a ku Nubia a m'zaka za m'ma 500 mpaka m'ma 1500 C.E. chakhala chikulongosoledwa kuti ndi "Afro-Byzantine", ndipo kufunika kwa "African" kumakula pakapita nthawi. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kutolera visambizgo vyawo. Gulu la boma ili likaŵa lakunjilirapo chomene, ndipo likajintha pa ŵamazaza ŵa ku Byzantine awo ŵakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenta vinthu vya ku dongo, chomenechomene vithuzithuzi vya ku viliŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakalemba vilembo vyawo vya chiyowoyero chawo, Old Nobiin, ivyo vikajintha pa vilembo vya Chigiriki, Chigiriki, Chigiriki, na Chiarabu. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na udindo wapachanya: ŵakasambiranga, ŵakaguranga, kugura na kuguliska malo, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chuma chawo kuti ŵapeleke ndalama ku matchalitchi. Nanga mphapu ya fumu yingaŵa ya mu mbumba ya amama ŵake, ndipo mwana wa mudumbu wa fumu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa muhaliri.

Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100 m'paka m'ma 1200, msumba ukuru wa Makuria, Dongola, ukamba kuchepa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1500 C.E., mafuko gha Ŵabedouin ghakawukira charu cha Sudan na kuluta ku Butana, Gezira, Kordofan, na Darfur. Mu 1365, nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Makuria kuti ŵachimbilire ku Gebel Adda ku Lower Nubia. Kufuma apo, Makuria wakalutilira kuŵa ufumu ucoko waka. Themba laumaliro la ku Makuria likaŵa Joel, ilo likaŵako mu 1463 na 1484. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, ufumu uwu ukwenera kuti ukawa. Kumwera, ufumu wa Alodia ukathereskeka na Ŵaarabu, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Abdallah Jamma, panji Funj, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafuma kumwera. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. (c. 1396~1494 C.E.), mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., 1504 m'paka 1509. Ufumu wa Fazughli, uwo ukaŵako m'paka mu 1685, ndiwo ukaŵa ufumu wa Alodi.[8]

Islamic kingdoms (c. 1500–1821)

Nkhani ikulu: Islamization of the Sudan region, Tunjur kingdom, Funj Sultanate, and Sultanate of Darfur
 
The great mosque of Sennar, built in the 17th century.[9]

Mu 1504, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Sennar. Mu 1523, apo Muyuda munyake zina lake David Reubeni wakaluta ku Sudan, caru ca Funj cikafika ku Dongola. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakasopanga visopa vya Chiyuda ŵakamba kupharazga vya chisopa cha Chiyuda pa Mlonga wa Nayelo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1600. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakalutilira kusunga mitheto ya chisopa chautesi, nga nkhutora ufumu wa Chiuta panji kumwa moŵa m'paka mu ma 1800. Chisilamu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan chikapwelelera maluso ghanandi agho ghakafuma ku Chikhristu m'paka sono.

Mwaluŵiro Ŵafunj ŵakanjira mu nkhondo na Ŵaotomu, awo ŵakakora Suakin mu 1526 ndipo pamasinda ŵakaluta kumwera mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, m'paka ŵakafika ku chigaŵa chachitatu mu 1583/1584. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman ŵakayezga kupoka Dongola mu 1585. Pamanyuma pake, Hannik, uyo wakaŵa kumwera kwa nthenda ya katara, ndiyo wakaŵa mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Ŵaotomu, ŵakayezga kupoka ufumu wa Ajib, themba lichoko la kumpoto kwa Nubia. Nangauli Funj ŵakamukoma mu 1611/12, kweni Abdallab, uyo wakaŵa mulondezgi wake, wakapika mazaza ghakulongozga vinthu vyose kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakukumana.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Funj ukakura chomene, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukamba kuchepa. Kuwukira boma mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti muwuso wa ufumu usinthe, ndipo mu 1761 m'paka mu 1762, boma la Hamaj likamba kulamulira. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ufumu uwu ukamba kupasuka; ndipo kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukaŵa waka mu chigaŵa cha Gezira.[10]

 
Southern Sudan mu c. 1800

Kuwukira boma kwa mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulondezga chisopa cha Cisilamu, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵambe kuŵa Ŵarabu. Kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, Ŵafunj ŵakamba kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Umayyad. Kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakusanganirana, kufupi na Al Dabbah, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakaŵa na fuko la Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Jaalin. M'paka m'ma 1800, Chiarabu ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero chikuru chomene mu chigaŵa chapakati pa milonga ya Sudan na mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Kordofan.

Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, ku Darfur, nyengo ya Chisilamu yikati yakwana, ufumu wa Tunjur ukawuka, uwo ukasintha ufumu wakale wa Daju mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ŵakwenera kuti ŵakaŵa Ŵaarabu ndipo awo ŵakalongozganga ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Fur Keira ukachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur. Boma la Keira, ilo likaŵa la Chisilamu kufuma mu nyengo ya Solomoni Solong (uyo wakawusa mu 1660 m'paka mu 1680), likaŵa ufumu uchoko kumpoto kwa Jebel Marra, kweni likakura kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na kumafumiro gha dazi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Muhammad Tayrab (uyo wakawusa mu 1751 m'paka mu 1786). Ufumu uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene, ndipo ukaŵa ukuru wakuyana na wa Nigeria wa mazuŵa ghano..[11]

Muma 1900

Egyptian Conquest

Nkhani ikulu: History of Sudan (1821–1885)

Kwambira mu 1805, Eguputo wakasintha mwaluŵiro chomene apo Muhammad Ali Pasha wakawusanga. Mu vilimika vichoko waka, Muhammad Ali wakasintha caru ca Eguputo kufuma ku cigaŵa ca Ottoman ico cikaŵa cambura kuvikilirika na boma la Ottoman kuya ku caru cakujiyimira. Pakulondezga ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Mamluk ŵakachitanga mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages, Muhammad Ali wakakhumbanga kusazgirako mphaka za Eguputo na kunjilira mu Sudan. Pakati pa 1820 na 1821, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakalongozgekanga na mwana wa Muhammad Ali, ŵakapoka charu cha Sudan na kukolerana nacho. Cifukwa cakuti Eguputo wakalutilira kugomezgeka kwa themba la Ottoman, boma la Eguputo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Turkiyah. Pakwamba, maji ghakututuka gha mu Sudd ghakatondeskanga ŵanthu kusamira kumwera kwa caru ici. Nangauli mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Eguputo wakapoka chigaŵa chose icho sono chikuchemeka Sudan, ndipo wakambiska chigaŵa cha Equatoria kumwera kwa Sudan. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo vya ufumu wa Turkiyah, ŵamishonale ŵa ku Britain ŵakaluta ku Sudan kufuma ku Kenya kuti ŵakakhozge ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha kuŵa Ŵakhristu.

 
A typical slave merchant of Khartoum, 1875

Mahdism and condominium

Nkhani ikulu: Mahdist State
Wonaniso: Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan, Battle of Omdurman, and Battle of Umm Diwaykarat

IMu 1881, mulongozgi wa cisopa zina lake Muhammad Ahmad wakajiphara kuti ni Mahdi ("uyo wakulongozgeka") ndipo wakamba nkhondo ya kuwunganya mafuko gha kumanjiliro gha dazi na pakati pa Sudan. Ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakatora zina lakuti "Ansars" ("ŵalondezgi") ilo ŵakulutilira kuligwiliskira nchito mazuŵa ghano, pamoza na gulu likuru comene la ndyali, la Umma Party (ilo likalongozgekanga na muwukirano wa Mahdi, Sadiq al Mahdi). Pakugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivyo vikacitika cifukwa ca kusuzgika na vinthu viheni ivyo vikacitikanga na Ŵaeguputo, Mahdi wakalongozga gulu lakugalukira boma ilo likakoma msumba wa Khartoum pa Janyuwale 26, 1885. Kazembe wa nyengo yichoko wa Sudan, Charles George Gordon, na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Khartoum ŵakakomeka.

Mahdi wakafwa mu Juni 1885. Wakalondezgana na Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, uyo wakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Khalifa, uyo wakamba kusazgirako vigaŵa vya Sudan na kunjizgamo Ethiopia. Wakati watonda nkhondo ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Etiyopiya, wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo. Ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain ŵakamanya kuti ku Sudan kulije nkhongono.

Mu 1898, ŵasilikari ŵa Anglo-Egypt awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Lord Kitchener ŵakatumika ku Sudan. Mu 1899, boma la Britain na Egypt likamba kulamulira charu cha Sudan. Mwaciyelezgero, Kazembe Mukuru wa ku Sudan wakasankhika na "Khedival Decree", m'malo mwa ufumu wa Britain, kweni uku wakuwoneka nga wakuwusa lumoza, Ufumu wa Britain ndiwo ukapanganga malango, ndipo ndiwo ukaŵapa ŵalara ŵa boma.

British control (1896–1955)

Nkhani ikulu: History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition
 
Flag of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)

Mu 1896, gulu linyake la ku Belgium likapoka chigaŵa chinyake cha kumwera kwa Sudan icho chikachemekanga Lado Enclave. Malo gha Lado ghakaŵa ku Belgian Congo. Mu 1896, pakati pa Britain na Belgium pakaŵa phangano lakuti malo agha ghapelekekenge ku Britain, Themba Leopold II likati lafwa mu Disembala 1909.

Pa nyengo yeneyira, Ŵafalansa ŵakapoka malo ghanandi: Bahr el Ghazal, na Western Upper Nile m'paka ku Fashoda. Kuzakafika mu 1896, ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa ivi ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuviŵika mu French West Africa. Nkhondo ya pa caru cose iyo yikamanyikwa kuti Fashoda yikacitika pakati pa France na United Kingdom cifukwa ca malo agha. Mu 1899, caru ca France cikazomera kupeleka caru ici ku ufumu wa Anglo-Egypt.

Kwambira mu 1898, Britain na Egypt ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa chose cha Sudan icho sono chikuchemeka Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, kweni kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sudan vikaŵa vigaŵa vyapadera. Kuuyambiro wa m'ma 1920, ŵa ku Britain ŵakakanizga vyaru vinyake kwenda mu vigaŵa ivi.

Kumwera, ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga Chingelezi, Dinka, Bari, Nuer, Latuko, Shilluk, Azande, na Pari (Lafon). Ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu cha Britain ŵambe kusopa chisopa cha Chiisilamu. Ŵalara ŵa boma ku South Sudan ŵakalutanga ku maungano gha vyaru vinyake ku East Africa, ku Khartoum yayi.

Ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵasange ndalama na vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa kumpoto. Ndyali za kumwera zikalutilira kuŵa nga umo zikaŵira pambere ŵa ku Britain ŵandafike. M'paka m'ma 1920, ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka kumwera.

Kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza kumpoto, Ŵacigiriki ŵakakhozga Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani, mulongozgi wa gulu la Khatmiyya, na Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, mulongozgi wa gulu la Ansar. Gulu la Ansar likazgoka chipani cha Umma, ndipo Khatmiyya wakazgoka chipani cha Democratic Unionist.

Mu 1943, ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kunozga vyaru vya kumpoto kuti vijilamulirenge vyekha, ndipo ŵakazenga North Sudan Advisory Council kuti yilongozgenge vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Sudan: Khartoum, Kordofan, Darfur, Eastern, Northern, na Blue Nile. Kweni mu 1946, boma la Britain likasintha maghanoghano ghake ndipo likaghanaghana kuti likoleraniske kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sudan. Pa ungano wa ku Juba mu 1947, boma la South Sudan likaphalirika kuti kunthazi liŵenge na boma limoza na kumpoto. Kwambira mu 1948, ŵanthu 13 awo ŵakimikika na boma la Britain ŵakimiranga chigaŵa cha kumwera mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Sudan.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa kumwera ŵakajiwonanga kuti Ŵanung'una ŵaŵapusikizgira, cifukwa ŵakaŵa kutali na boma liphya. Nangauli boma liphya likayowoyanga Ciarabu, kweni ŵamazaza na ŵandyali ŵanandi ŵa kumwera kwa Sudan ŵakasambizgika Cingelezi. Pa mauteŵeti gha boma 800 agho ghakalekeka na ŵa ku Britain mu 1953, ghanayi pera ndigho ghakapelekeka ku ŵanthu ŵa kumwera.

Kweniso, ndyali za kumwera zikaŵa zakukolerana yayi na za kumpoto, ntheura magulu gha ndyali na vyaru vya kumwera vikaŵa na ŵimiliri yayi pa maungano ghakupambanapambana na kudumbiskana ivyo vikawovwira kuti charu cha Sudan chiŵepo. Ntheura, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa kumwera ŵakawonanga kuti Sudan ni boma lakuzomerezgeka yayi.

Independent Sudan (1956 to present)

Independence and the First Civil War

 
Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony by the Prime Minister Isma'il al-Azhari and opposition leader Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub on 1 January 1956
Nkhani ikulu: Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969) and First Sudanese Civil War

Mu Febuluwale 1953, caru ca United Kingdom na Eguputo vikacita phangano lakuti caru ca Sudan ciŵe na wanangwa wa kwendeska vinthu vyaco. Nyengo ya kujithemba yikamba mu 1954 apo boma likamba kulamulira. Pa 18 Ogasiti 1955 ku Torit South Sudan kukawuka chigaluka mu ŵasilikari, icho nangauli chikadumulika mwaluŵiro, chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ŵa ku South Sudan ŵambe kuwukira boma. Pa Disembala 15, 1955, nduna yikuru ya Sudan, Ismail al-Azhari, yikapharazga kuti mu mazuŵa ghanayi, Sudan yizamupharazga kuti njakujiyimira payekha. Pa Disembala 19, 1955, nyumba ya malango ya ku Sudan yikapharazga mwakukolerana kuti charu cha Sudan chili na wanangwa wa kusankha. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1956, boma la Britain na la Egypt likamanya kuti Sudan njakujiyimira payekha.[12] Boma la United States ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kuzomerezga boma liphya ili. Ndipouli, boma la Khartoum ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arab, likakana kufiska ivyo likaphalira ŵanthu ŵa ku South kuti liŵakhazikiskenge boma la federal. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku mpoto, ŵasambizgi, na ŵamazaza ŵanyake awo ŵakateŵeteranga kumwera ŵakakomeka.

Chipani cha National Unionist Party (NUP), icho chikaŵa pasi pa nduna yikuru Ismail al-Azhari, ndicho chikaŵa na mazaza pa nduna yakwamba, iyo yikasintha mwaluŵiro na wupu wakukolerana wa ŵandyali. Mu 1958, pamanyuma pa masuzgo gha vya cuma na vinthu vya ndyali ivyo vikapangiska kuti boma lileke kugwira ntchito, Mulara wa ŵasilikari, Jenerale Ibrahim Abboud, wakawuskapo boma mu boma.

Wupu Wakulongozga Ndipouli, Abboud wakafiska yayi ivyo wakalayizga kuti wawezgerepo boma la ŵanthu ku Sudan, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakwiya na boma la ŵasilikari.

Boma la Abboud likalondezgana na boma la kanyengo kachoko m'paka apo mavoti gha pa nyumba ya malango mu Epulero 1965 ghakapangiska kuti boma la Umma na National Unionist Parties liŵe pasi pa nduna yikuru Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub. Pakati pa 1966 na 1969, mu Sudan mukaŵa maboma ghanandi agho ghakatondeka kukolerana pa nkhani ya dango la ndyali panji kumazga masuzgo gha vigaŵa, kusuzgika kwa vinthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma, na kugaŵikana kwa mafuko. Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Nakuti dango lakwamba la Chisilamu ilo lalembeka mu 1968, ndilo likaŵa lakwamba mu Sudan.

The Nimeiry Era

Nkhani ikulu: Democratic Republic of the Sudan

Ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo ŵakawona, ndipo pa Meyi 25, 1969, boma likawuskaso boma. Mulongozgi wa boma, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry, wakazgoka nduna yikuru, ndipo boma liphya likamazga Nyumba ya Malamulo na kukanizga vipani vyose vya ndyali.

Mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa Marxist na ŵambura Marxist mukati mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ku muwuso wa ŵasilikari, zikapangiska kuti boma lipoke boma mu July 1971. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghacoko waka, ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Communist ŵakawezgerapo Nimeiry ku mazaza.

Mu 1972, phangano la Addis Ababa likawovwira kuti nkhondo ya kumpoto na kumwera yimare. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya pawenenawene ya vyaka 10.

M'paka m'ma 1970, vyakurya vinandi vya ku Sudan vikagwiliskirika ntchito mu charu. Mu 1972, boma la Sudan likamba kutemwera vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo likanozga vyakurya na vyakurya vinyake. Kweni mu ma 1970, mitengo ya vinthu yikakhira, ndipo vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Sudan. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakunozga vyakurya zikakwera. Mu 1978, wupu wa International Monetary Fund (IMF) ukadumbiskana na boma za ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu. Ici cikakhozga comene vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵaliska ŵa ku Sudan ŵasuzgikenge chomene.

Mu 1976, gulu la Ansars likayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweni likatondeka. Mu Julayi 1977, Pulezidenti Nimeiry wakakumana na mulongozgi wa Ansar, Sadiq al-Mahdi, ndipo wakajura nthowa kuti paŵe mtende. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali ŵakafwatulika, ndipo mu Ogasiti, ŵanthu wose awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Nimeiry ŵakafwatulika.

Arms suppliers

Charu cha Sudan chikathembanga vyakurya vya mitundu yakupambanapambana. Kufuma waka apo boma la Britain likapokera wanangwa, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasambizgikanga na kupelekeka vyakukhumbikwa na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, kweni ŵakamara kucezga nawo mu 1967 pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Mazuŵa 6 ya Ŵaarabu na Ŵaisrayeli. Pa nyengo iyi, ubwezi wawo na United States na West Germany nawo ukamara. Kwambira mu 1968 m'paka 1971, Soviet Union na vyaru vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi vikaguliska vilwero vinandi ku Sudan na kumupa wovwiri na masambiro. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵakakwana 60,000. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵakagura matangi ghanandi, ndege, na vilwero vya nkhondo. Pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu 1971, ndipo boma la Khartoum likakhumbanga kupangiska vyaru vinyake kuti vipelekenge vinthu vinandi. Mu ma 1970, Eguputo wakaŵa munyithu wa nkhondo wakuzirwa comene, ndipo wakapelekanga mabomba, ndege zakunyamulira ŵanthu, na vinthu vinyake vya nkhondo.

Vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vikambaso kupeleka vyakurya ku Sudan mu ma 1970. Mu 1976, boma la United States likamba kuguliska vinthu vinandi ku Sudan. Mu 1982, ŵasilikari ŵakaguliska vinthu vinandi chomene, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga zikaŵa madola 101 miliyoni. Ubwezi wawo na United States ukakhora comene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Ronald Reagan. Wovwiri wa boma la America ukakwera kufuma pa madola 5 miliyoni mu 1979 kufika pa madola 200 miliyoni mu 1983 na kufika pa madola 254 miliyoni mu 1985, comenecomene pa vya nkhondo. Ntheura, Sudan ndiyo yikapokera wovwiri ukuru comene kufuma ku United States ku Africa. Ŵakasankha kuzenga vipatala vinayi vya nkhondo vya ku mphepo kuti viŵe na mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa CIA pafupi na Port Sudan.[13]

Second Civil War

Nkhani ikulu: Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019) and Second Sudanese Civil War

Mu 1983, nkhondo ya pa cikaya ku South yikambaso cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya boma ya kuzgora caru kuŵa Cisilamu. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, boma likakolerana na magulu gha kumwera. Mu 1984 na 1985, pamanyuma pa chilangalanga, ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakaŵa pangozi ya njara, comenecomene ku Western Sudan. Boma likuyezga kubisa suzgo ili pa caru cose.

Mu Malichi 1985, ŵapharazgi ŵakamba kudandawura cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mitengo ya vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa caru cose. Pa Epulero 2, mawupu ghankhondi na ghatatu ghakacema ŵanthu kuti ŵanjire mu nkhondo na kwamba "kurwa nkhondo ya ndyali m'paka boma ili limare". Pa zuŵa lacitatu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kusunkhunyika mu msumba wa Khartoum kweniso mu misumba yikuru ya mu caru ici. Pa Epulero 6, 1985, gulu la ŵasilikari, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Lt. General Abd ar Rahman Siwar adh Dhahab, ŵakathereska Nimeiri, uyo wakabisama ku Eguputo. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghatatu, Dhahab wakazomerezga kuti paŵe wupu wa ŵasilikari wa ŵanthu 15 (Transitional Military Council (TMC)) kuti uwuse Sudan.

Mu Juni 1986, Sadiq al Mahdi wakapangiska boma la wupu wakukolerana na Umma Party, Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), National Islamic Front (NIF), na maboma ghanayi gha kumwera. Kweni cacitima nchakuti Sadiq wakaŵa mulongozgi wambura nkhongono ndipo wakatondeka kuwusa Sudan. Muwuso wa Sadiq ukaŵa na vipani, vimbundi, mphindano za ŵanthu, vimbundi, na vinthu vyambura urunji. Pakati pajumpha chaka chimoza, Sadiq al Mahdi wakalekeska boma cifukwa ŵakatondeka kulemba dango liphya la malango gha Sharia, kukolerana na IMF, kumazga nkhondo ya pa cikaya kumwera, panji kunozga ndondomeko ya kukopa ndalama za ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan. Kuti wasungilire wovwiri wa DUP na vyaru vya kumwera, Sadiq wakapangaso boma linyake lambura nkhongono.

Mu 1989, boma na ŵakugaluka ŵa kumwera ŵakamba kudumbiskana kuti ŵamazge nkhondo, kweni boma likapoka mazaza gha ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti ŵagomezgane. Mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵasilikari, Omar al-Bashir, wakakhwimiska mazaza ghake mu vilimika vicoko waka vyakulondezgapo, ndipo wakajiphara kuti ni pulezidenti.

Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 4 miliyoni ŵa ku South Africa ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo. Ŵanyake ŵakacimbilira ku misumba ya kumwera, nga ni Juba; ŵanyake ŵakaluta kumpoto kwa Khartoum, na ku Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, na vyaru vinyake vyapafupi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakatondekanga kulima vyakurya panji kusanga ndalama zakukwana kuti ŵalyere ŵekha. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama zakwendeskera vinthu ku vyaru vya kumwera, ŵanthu awo ŵakuwovwira ŵanthu pa caru cose ŵali nga ni "mbumba yakuzgeŵa".

Kukwambilira kwa chaka cha 2003, gulu la Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) na Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) likamba kuwukira mu chigaŵa cha Darfur. Ŵakwimikana na boma ŵakasuska boma lapakati kuti likuzerezga chigaŵa cha Darfur, nangauli pali kukayika pa vilato vya ŵakwimikana na boma ili ndiposo usange ŵakukhumba waka kuti Darfur yiŵe makora mukati mwa Sudan panji kuti ŵafumemo mwaluŵiro. Boma na ŵakugaluka wose ŵakususkika na vinthu viheni ivyo vyacitika mu nkhondo iyi, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakususkika ni gulu la nkhondo la Ŵaarabu (Janjaweed). Ŵalwani ŵakuti magulu agha ghakucitiska viwawa mu Darfur, ndipo nkhondo zacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakomeka na nkhondo iyi, ndipo ŵakujumpha 20,000 panji kujumpha apa.

IMu 2004, Chadi ndiyo wakadumbiskana nkhani mu N'Djamena, ndipo pa Epulero 8, boma la Sudan, JEM, na SLA ŵakadumura phangano la kuleka nkhondo. Ndipouli, nkhondo yikalutilira nangauli pakaŵa vyakutimbanizga nkhondo. Mu Ogasiti 2004, wupu wa African Union ukatuma ŵasilikari 150 ŵa ku Rwanda kuti ŵakavikilire awo ŵakalondezganga para nkhondo yamara. Ndipouli, vikamanyikwa kuti ŵasilikari 150 ŵakakwana yayi, ntheura ŵasilikari 150 ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakiza.

Pa Seputembala 18, 2004, wupu wa United Nations Security Council ukafumiska Resolution 1564 iyo yikati boma la Sudan lindakwaniriske ivyo likalayizga. Wakapokelera khumbo la African Union lakuti likhozge mulimo wake wa kulaŵilira vinthu mu Darfur ndipo wakaciska vyaru vyose vyamunyumba kuti viwovwirepo. Mu 2005, ŵasilikari ŵa African Union Mission mu Sudan ŵakasazgikira kufika pa 7,000.

Nkhondo ya Chadi na Sudan yikamba pa Disembala 23, 2004, apo boma la Chadi likapharazga kuti kuli nkhondo na Sudan ndipo likachemera ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi kuti ŵawukire gulu la Rally for Democracy and Freedom (RDL) (ŵakwimikana na boma la Sudan) na ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan awo ŵakawukira mizi na matawuni gha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad, kwiba viŵeto, kukoma ŵanthu, na kotcha nyumba.

Mu 2003 na kukwambilira kwa 2004, maboma gha ku South Sudan ghakachita vinandi pa nkhani ya mtende. Vigaŵa viŵiri ivi vikakolerana kuti pamanyuma pa phangano la mtende, South Sudan yizamuŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Kweniso, ndalama za mafuta zizamugaŵikana mwakuyana waka pakati pa boma na ŵakugaluka mu vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukayikira usange boma lingakwaniska kufiska malayizgo agha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakakayikiranga usange ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵa kumpoto ŵangatondeska phangano ili.

Pa Janyuwale 9, 2005, mu msumba wa Nairobi mukalembeka phangano la mtende. Fundo za phangano la mtende ni izi:

  • Kumwera kwa caru ici kuzamuŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, pamanyuma pake kuzamuŵa referendum ya kujipatura.
  • Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vizamusazga ŵasilikari ŵawo mu vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza para ŵanthu ŵafumamo mu charu ichi.
  • Ndalama izo zikufuma mu migodi ya mafuta zikwenera kugaŵikana mwakuyana pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera.
  • Ntchito zikwenera kugaŵika mwakuyana na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana (maboma ghapakati: 70-30, Abyei/Blue Nile State/Nuba Mountains: 55-45, wose ŵakukolerana na boma).

Dango la Cisilamu likhalilirenge kumpoto, apo dango la Sharia likeneranga kulondezgana na malango gha boma kumwera.

Islamisation

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵika malango ghakukhora gha Chisilamu na maluso gha Chisilamu ghakukolerana na Sharia. Masambiro ghakasintha kuti ghawonenge chomene umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Chisilamu ŵakukhalira, nga nkhusambira Koran mu visopa. Ŵapolisi ŵa cisopa ŵakawonanga kuti ŵanakazi ŵakubisa cisko cawo, comenecomene mu maofesi gha boma na maunivesite. Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kusuzga ŵanyawo, ndipo gulu linyake lakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu likuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika mu vipinda vyakuti ŵanthu ŵakusuzgikiramo. Nkhondo yakwimikana na vyaru vya kumwera ivyo vikaŵa vya Ŵasilamu yayi yikacemeka jihad. Pa wayilesi ya boma, ŵanthu ŵakayezgeranga "nthengwa" pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa chifukwa cha nkhondo ya jihad na ŵamwali ŵakuchanya. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Turabi wakapelekaso malo ghakubisamamo na wovwiri ku ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Islam awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Sudan yayi, kusazgapo Osama bin Laden na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa Al Qaeda.[14]

Recent history (2006 to 2011)

Wonani vinandi: Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)

Pa Ogasiti 31, 2006, wupu wa United Nations Security Council ukazomerezga fundo ya 1706 kuti utume ŵasilikari 17,300 ku Darfur. Ndipouli, mu myezi yakulondezgapo, UNMIS yikatondeka kuluta ku Darfur cifukwa cakuti boma la Sudan likakananga kucita mulimo wa mtende uwo ukacitikanga na wupu wa United Nations. Pamasinda, wupu wa UN ukagwiliskira nchito nthowa yinyake kuti ukhazikiske mtende mu cigaŵa ici. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na boma la Sudan kwa nyengo yitali kweniso mwakufwilirapo kweniso kuyuzgika na ŵamitundu, likapokelera kuti caru ca Darfur ciŵe na ŵasilikari.

Mu 2009, khoti la International Criminal Court likapeleka dango lakuti al-Bashir wakomeke. Mu 2009 na 2010, nkhondo zinandi pakati pa mafuko ghakusama mu South Kordofan zikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafwe na kusama.

 
South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011

Pa Janyuwale 15, 2010, charu cha Chad na Sudan vikakolerana kuti viŵeso pamtende. Boma la Sudan na JEM ŵakalembeska phangano lakumazga nkhondo ya ku Darfur mu Febuluwale, 2010.

Mu Janyuwale 2011, boma la South Sudan likachita referendum kuti liŵe na wanangwa wakujiyimira pawekha. Al-Bashir wakapharazga kuti wazomera ivyo vyalongosoreka, kweni mwaluŵiro nkhaza zikamba mu chigaŵa cha Abyei, icho kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi vikapangana.

Pa Juni 6, 2011, nkhondo yikamba ku South Kordofan pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sudan, pambere charu cha South chindafume ku mazaza ghake pa Julayi 9. Pamanyuma, wose ŵakakolerana kuti ŵafumemo mu Abyei. Pa Juni 20, vyaru ivi vikakolerana kuti vileke kwambiska nkhondo mu chigaŵa cha Abyei, uko ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakeneranga kutumika. Pa Julayi 9, 2011, South Sudan yikajiyimira payekha.[15]

After Omar al-Bashir (2019–present)

Nkhani ikulu: 2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy

Mu Epulero 2019, pamanyuma pa myezi yinandi ya viwawa vya mu misewu, pulezidenti wa Sudan Omar al-Bashir wakathereskeka. Kufuma waka apo boma lake likathira, caru ici cikulongozgeka na wupu wa Sudan Sovereignty Council, uwo uli na ŵimiliri ŵa ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari. Kufikira pa Chisankho cha General ku Sudan, chomwe chikukonzekera 2022, dzikoli liyenera kutsogoleredwa ndi Wapampando wa Transitional Sovereign Council, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, ndi Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.

Pamanyuma pa kuwuskika kwa al-Bashir ku mazaza, viwoneskero vya mu misewu ivyo vikanozgeka na wupu wa Sudanese Professionals Association na magulu gha demokilase ghakwimikana navyo vikalutizga, kupempha wupu wa Transitional Military Council (TMC) kuti "mwaluŵiro na kwambura mazgu" uleke kuwusa na boma la ŵanthu, na kukhumba kusintha vinthu vinyake mu Sudan. Maungano pakati pa TMC na chipani chakususkana na boma kuti ŵapange boma lakwendera lumoza ghakacitika mu mwezi wa Epulero na Meyi, kweni ghakaleka apo ŵasilikari ŵa Rapid Support Forces na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa TMC ŵakakoma ŵanthu 128 mu Khartoum pa 3 June 2019.

Mu Okutobala 2020, Sudan yikapangana na Israel kuti yikhazikiske ubwezi wake na chalo ichi, icho chikaŵa chigaŵa cha phangano na United States kuti Sudan yifumiskike pa chigaŵa cha US cha State Sponsors of Terrorism.[16]

2020–2021 Ethiopian wars

Pa nkhondo ya Tigray ya 2020-2021, Sudan nayo yikakhwaskika. Pa 18 Disembala 2020, ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan ŵakeneranga kuti ŵakendanga kulazga ku chigaŵa cha mphaka cha Ethiopia na Sudan. Lipoti la EEPA likati Mulongozgi Mukuru wa Sudan, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, wakaluta ku malo agha. Eguputo wakakanizga kuti Ethiopia watimbane na Sudan, ndipo wakayowoya kuti wali pamoza na Sudan ndipo wakapempha kuti ŵachitengepo kanthu kuti vinthu ivi vileke kucitikaso. Lipoti la EEPA likati pa 18 Disembala 2020, boma la Sudan likaphalira boma la Ethiopia kuti likugwiliskira ntchito futi kwimikana na ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan awo ŵakuchita ntchito mu chigaŵa cha mphaka. Nkhondo pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi yikulutilira mu masabata gha sonosono apa, pamanyuma pakuti Sudan yikawuskaso malo agho yikati ghakaŵa gha ŵalimi ŵa ku Ethiopia. Boma la Ethiopia lindayowoyepo kanthu pa nkhani iyi. Pa 18 Disembala 2020, boma la Sudan likalangura ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo ŵa Tigrayan awo ŵafika sonosono mu msasa wa Hamadyat kuti ŵafumemo na kuluta ku charu cha Sudan chifukwa cha kopa nkhondo pakati pa Ethiopia na Sudan. Pa 19 Disembala 2020, suzgo pakati pa Ethiopia na Sudan yikakuranga. Sudan yatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi, kusazgapo ŵasilikari ŵa Rapid Support Forces, na vinthu vinyake ku chigaŵa cha mphaka. Wovwiri wakufuma ku mafuko gha Beni Amer na al-Habb mu vigaŵa vya Kassala na Gedaref, kusazgapo vyakurya na ndalama. Kuyowoya na Ethiopia kwamara. Lipoti la EEPA likati pa 19 Disembala 2020, Sudan yikakora ŵasilikari ŵa Eritrea awo ŵakavwara yunifomu ya gulu la Amhara. Pa 20 Disembala 2020, gulu la nkhondo la Sudan likambaso kuwusa Jabal Abu Tayyur, mu chigaŵa chakususkana pa mphaka ya Ethiopia na Sudan. Nkhondo yikuru yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan na ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopian National Defense Forces (ENDF) na ŵasilikari ŵa Amhara ku Metemma kufupi na mphaka ya Ethiopia na Sudan.[17]

2021 coup

Nkhani ikulu: 2021 Sudanese coup d'état

Pa 25 Okutobala 2021, ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, ŵakatora boma mu boma. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵankhongono 5 ŵa boma ŵakakakika. Mulongozgi wa boma Abdalla Hamdok wakakana kukhozgera boma ndipo pa Okutobala 25 wakacema ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana.

Gulu likuru la ŵanthu nga ni Sudanese Professionals Association na Forces of Freedom and Change ŵakacema ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kupulikira boma na kukana kukolerana na awo ŵakapanga boma.

Pakukumana na ŵanthu ŵa mukati na vyaru vyakupambanapambana, al-Burhan wakapharazga kuti ngwakunozgeka kuwezgerapo boma la Hamdok pa Okutobala 28, nangauli nduna yikuru iyo yikadumulika yikakana, ndipo yikapangiska kuti kudumbiskana kulikose kulutilire para boma laweleramo. Pa Novembala 21, 2021, Hamdok na al-Burhan ŵakasayina phangano la fundo 14 ilo likakhazikiska Hamdok kuŵa nduna yikuru ndipo likati ŵakayidi wose ŵa ndyali ŵazamufwatulika. Magulu gha ŵanthu nga ni Forces for Freedom and Change na Sudanese Professionals Association ŵakakana chiphikiro ichi, ŵakakana kugaŵana mazaza na ŵasilikari.[18]

2023 fighting

Nkhani ikulu: 2023 Sudan conflict

Pa 15 Epulero, 2023, ŵasilikari ŵa Rapid Support Forces ŵakamba kuwukira boma. Pa 15 Epulero 2023, gulu la RSF na al-Burhan wose ŵakamba kuwusa malo ghanandi gha boma; nkhondo yikalutilira.[19]

Wonaniso

Vyakulemba

  1. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Sudan" Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  2. ↑ Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa Archived 2013-05-17 at the Wayback Machine. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 – (October 2001).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Early History", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan A Country Study Archived 2016-02-08 at the Wayback Machine. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.
  4. ↑ Simson Najovits, Egypt, the trunk of the tree, Volume 2, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.
  5. ↑ Manzo (2017): Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile Valley, 43-48 online Archived 2020-01-26 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ Welsby 2002, p. 26.
  7. ↑ Welsby 2002, pp. 77–78.
  8. ↑ Spaulding 1974, pp. 12–30.
  9. ↑ Holt & Daly 2000, p. 25.
  10. ↑ Spaulding 1985, p. 382.
  11. ↑ O'Fahey & Tubiana 2007, p. 9.
  12. ↑ Guy Arnold (November 3, 2016). Africa: A Modern History. Atlantic Books. pp. The Sudan. ISBN 9781786490377. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  13. ↑ Gresh, Alain (1985-10-01). "Le Soudan après la dictature". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). Retrieved 2022-04-20.
  14. ↑ Packer, George (11 September 2006). "The Moderate Martyr". The New Yorker. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  15. ↑ Martell, Peter (2011). "BBC News - South Sudan becomes an independent nation". BBC. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  16. ↑ "Sudan formally recognizes Israel in U.S.-brokered deal". NBC News.
  17. ↑ Sudan deploys troops in two additional border areas with Ethiopia Archived 2020-12-20 at the Wayback Machine Sudan Tribune, 20 December 2020
  18. ↑ "Sudan's Hamdok reinstated as PM after political agreement signed". www.aljazeera.com (in English). Retrieved 2021-11-21.
  19. ↑ "At least 25 killed, 183 injured in ongoing clashes across Sudan as paramilitary group claims control of presidential palace". CNN. 15 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.

Ukaboni

Vigaŵa vya kuwalo

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Sudan.

Vinandi

  • Abbas, Mekki. The Sudan question: the dispute over the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, 1884–1951 (1952)
  • Duncan, J.S.R. The Sudan: a record of achievement (1952), from the British perspective
  • Gee, Martha Bettis (2009). Piece work/peace work : working together for peace and Sudan : mission study for children and teacher's guide. Women's Division, General Board of Global Ministries, United Methodist Church. ISBN 978-1-933663-34-0.
  • Holt, P.M., and M.W. Daly. History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day (6th es. 2011)
  • Köndgen, Olaf. The Codification of Islamic Criminal Law in the Sudan. Penal Codes and Supreme Court Case Law under Numayri and al-Bashir (Leiden: Brill 2017)
  • Kramer, Robert S. ed. Historical Dictionary of the Sudan (2nd ed. 2013) excerpt and text search
  • Peel, Sidney (1905). "British Rule in the Sudan" . The Empire and the century. London: John Murray. pp. 800–08.
  • Vezzadini, Elena, Seri-Hersch, I., Revilla, L., Poussier, A. and Abdul Jalil, M. (2023). Ordinary Sudan, 1504–2019: From Social History to Politics from Below: Volume 1: Towards a New Social History of Sudan. Volume 2: Power from Below – Ordinary doing and undoing of the Establishment. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  • Warburg, Gabriel. Sudan Under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1916) (1971)
  • Woodward, Peter. Sudan 1898–1989 the Unstable State (1990)
  • Woodward, Peter, ed. Sudan After Nimeiri (2013); since 1984 excerpt and text search
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